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Biology Extras > Year 2 Definitions > Flashcards

Year 2 Definitions Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

‘Universal Energy Currency’

A

ATP found in all living eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, and links energy-releasing and energy-consuming reactions

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2
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Addition of a phosphate group, providing a -ve charge to the substrate

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3
Q

Electron Carriers

A

Specialised carrier globular proteins that accept or donate electrons, and have a quaternary structure (since they have a prosthetic group)

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4
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

When molecules other than oxygen are used as final electron acceptors, which allows glycolysis to continue and produce 2 ATP

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5
Q

Facultative Anaerobe

A

Can survive in both anaerobic and aerobic conditions, although growth is faster in aerobic

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6
Q

Respiratory Substrate

A

An organic molecule that can be oxidised in respiration to produce ATP

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7
Q

RQ

A

Respiratory Quotient. The ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide evolved to that of oxygen consumed by an organism, tissue or cell in a given time. Indicates the type of respiratory substrate being used

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8
Q

Aerobic Fitness

A

A measure of the ability of the heart and lungs to respond to the demands of aerobic exercise

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9
Q

VO2 Max

A

The maximum rate at which oxygen can be taken in, transported and utilised, as measured during incremental exercise

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10
Q

Excessive Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC)

A

The increased volume of oxygen consumed following vigorous exercise

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11
Q

Respiratory Pigment

A

A specialised molecule that is capable of binding reversibly with oxygen

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12
Q

Association

A

The binding uptake of oxygen by haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin

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13
Q

Dissociation

A

The ability of oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen from haem groups

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14
Q

Oxygen Dissociation Curve

A

A graph that shows the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) and % saturation of haemoglobin

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15
Q

Bohr Shift

A

Decrease in blood pH due to presence of carbon dioxide causes more oxygen to dissociate from haemoglobin in erythrocytes. Respiring tissues require more oxygen for more aerobic respiration to produce more ATP, so more carbon dioxide is produced, so less haemoglobin can combine with oxygen, so oxygen is released more easily

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16
Q

Oogenesis

A

The formation of secondary oocytes

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17
Q

GIFT

A

Sperm and secondary oocyte inserted into the oviduct and fertilisation occurs naturally inside the woman’s body

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18
Q

ZIFT

A

Fertilisation occurs in the lab, then the zygote is transferred to the oviduct

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19
Q

Ovulation Induction

A

Used when oocytes do not develop normally. Anti-oestrogen administered day 5-10, increases production of GnRH and secretion of LH and FSH from APG. Ultrasound detects developing follicles if present

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20
Q

Intrauterine Insemination

A

Sperm removed and washed to remove mucus and non-mobile sperm. Sperm concentrated in specialised medium, and sperm can then be injected into uterus via artificial insemination

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21
Q

Ageing

A

The accumulation of physical and physiological changes within a person

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22
Q

Senescence

A

The deterioration of tissues and the loss of their biological function as a result of time, which increases the mortality of the organism

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23
Q

Ovarian Reserve

A

The ability of an ovary to produce secondary oocytes that can be fertilised

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24
Q

Menopause

A

The last menstrual cycle in a woman. Onset normally 50-54 years

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25
Q

Perimenopause

A

Occurs several years before menopause. Periods become irregular and infrequent. Length of time between periods increases to cessation (menopause)

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26
Q

Hormone Replacement Therapy

A

Replacement of hormones that are decreasing in concentration due to the menopause

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27
Q

Unopposed Oestrogen

A

Daily oestrogen. Good for early menopause, but increases risk of uterine cancer

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28
Q

Combined HRT

A

Daily oestrogen and progestin. Reduces risk of endometrial cancer

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29
Q

Phytoestrogens

A

Phytoestrogens
Naturally occurring, mimic oestrogen. Converted to oestrogen-like compounds in gut by hydrolysis, and reduce effects of viral infections, such as isoflavones or lignans

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30
Q

Benign Prostate Hyperplasia

A

Increase in cell quantity, result of ageing in men, causing scarring of prostate tissue

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31
Q

Benign Prostate Hypertrophy

A

Increase in cell size, result of ageing in men, causing scarring of prostate tissue

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32
Q

Light Compensation Point

A

The amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration, usually achieved at dawn and dusk

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33
Q

Food Chain

A

Illustrates the transfer of energy between organisms within an ecosystem

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34
Q

Ecosystem

A

The biotic and abiotic components of a specific area, and their interactions

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35
Q

Community

A

The organisms within an ecosystem

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36
Q

Producer

A

An autotrophic organism that converts light energy to chemical energy

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37
Q

Primary Consumers

A

Organisms that gain their organic molecules and chemical energy from the consumption of producers

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38
Q

Secondary Consumers

A

Carnivores or omnivores that eat primary consumers

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39
Q

Tertiary Consumers

A

Carnivores or omnivores that eat secondary consumers

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40
Q

Trophic Level

A

The level at which each consumer eats in a food chain

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41
Q

Ectotherm

A

An animal that relies on external sources of heat for thermoregulation

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42
Q

Malthusian Crisis

A

The population in an area grows to exceed its food supply, resulting in mass starvation and population decrease

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43
Q

Overfishing

A

Over-exploitation where fish stocks are reduced to below acceptable levels

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44
Q

Farm

A

An ecosystem manipulated by humans to increase productivity based on biotic and abiotic factors

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45
Q

Gross Primary Productivity

A

The rate that producers convert light energy into chemical potential energy

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46
Q

Net Primary Productivity

A

The energy available for transfer after a plant uses some for respiration
(NPP = GPP – respiration)

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47
Q

Spray Drift

A

When herbicides and pesticides kill a non-target species

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48
Q

Food Security

A

A stable food supply

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49
Q

Sampling

A

Obtaining an estimate of the variety and quantity of organisms in an ecosystem

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50
Q

Stratified Sampling

A

Representative random sampling with sub regions

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51
Q

Transect

A

Identifies correlations between abiotic variables and distribution of organisms

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52
Q

Species Richness

A

The total number of species in an area

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53
Q

Species Evenness

A

How evenly a species is represented in an area

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54
Q

Pollination

A

The transfer of pollen grains from male reproductive structures to female reproductive structures of another plant prior to fertilisation

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55
Q

Self-Pollination

A

Pollen transferred to the stigma of the same flower, or another flower on the same plant

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56
Q

Cross-Pollination

A

Pollen is transferred from one plant’s anther to another plant’s stigma

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57
Q

Germination

A

Plant growth from a seed, including the growth of an embryo root and shoot

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58
Q

Gibberellins

A

Plant ‘hormones’ required for germination as growth regulators and cell signalling molecules

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59
Q

Photoperiodism

A

The reactions of Pr and Pfr that occur in daylight and darkness

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60
Q

Global Food Supply

A

The annual production of a specific crop, plus stockpiles of it carried over from previous years

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61
Q

Monogenetic Trait

A

A characteristic controlled by a single trait

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62
Q

PKU

A

Phenylketonuria

Mutation prevents the formation of the enzyme required to break down phenylalanine, so phenylalanine accumulates in blood or tissue fluid, causing brain damage

63
Q

Huntington’s Disease

A

Accumulation of protein fragments in brain neurones due to an insertion mutation on chromosome 4. Reduces ability to talk, walk and think

64
Q

Sickle Cell Anaemia

A

A substitution in the gene which codes for the beta-polypeptide chain in haemoglobin. Valine replaced glutamate

65
Q

Codominance

A

Two or more alleles that do not show complete dominance, resulting in an intermediate condition of the phenotype

66
Q

HLAs

A

Help the immune system distinguish the body’s own proteins from proteins made by pathogens

67
Q

Chromosome Mutation

A

A random change in the number of chromosomes or chromosome structure, usually following an error in mitosis

68
Q

Sex-Linkage

A

Inheritance of genes on the X and Y chromosomes

69
Q

Haemophilia A

A

A sex-linked genetic disorder where clotting factor VIII is not produced, causing an increase in clotting time

70
Q

Translocation

A

A piece of chromosome breaks off and is transferred to another chromosome

71
Q

Non-Disjunction

A

A change in the diploid number of chromosomes, when homologous chromosomes don’t separate in meiosis I, or sister chromatids don’t separate in meiosis II

72
Q

Turner’s Syndrome

A

Non-disjunction during oogenesis causes one oocyte to be XX, the other is OO. Resulting zygote is XO and has 45 chromosomes (2n-1)

73
Q

Klinefelter’s Syndrome

A

Non-disjunction during spermatogenesis, causes one sperm to be XY, the other is OO. Resulting zygote is XXY

74
Q

Pedigree Analysis

A

A method of predicting the likelihood of a child being born with a genetic disorder

75
Q

Genetic Counsellor

A

Help people understand the risks of children inheriting diseases, and make informed decisions

76
Q

Dihybrid Cross

A

A cross between two F1 offspring of two individuals which have different characteristics

77
Q

Gene Pool

A

All variants of a gene within a population

78
Q

Genetic Bottleneck

A

A drastic reduction in population numbers

79
Q

Founder Effect

A

A small group breaks away from the original population, causing alleles to become more or less common in the group

80
Q

Geographic Isolation

A

Allopatric isolation, involves a physical barrier which causes the two groups to experience different selection pressures

81
Q

Reproductive Isolation

A

Results from geographic isolation. Mechanisms include: temporal, behavioural, anatomical and post-mating barriers

82
Q

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

A

The proportion of alleles will remain constant from one generation to the next, providing the following conditions are met: No new mutations, no flow of alleles due to migration, no natural selection, large population, random mating

83
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of changes in gene expression that are not a result of changes to a DNA sequence

84
Q

PCR

A

Polymerase chain reaction. Artificial DNA replication

85
Q

Haplotypes

A

Sets of genes inherited together from one parent

86
Q

Electrophoresis

A

Preparation and analysis of DNA for sequencing

87
Q

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

A

Sequences of DNA that vary between individuals by a single nucleotide

88
Q

Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTRs)

A

Patterns of repeated adjacent nucleotides

89
Q

Genetic Engineering

A

The manipulation of an organism’s DNA

90
Q

Transformed Organisms

A

Organisms with recombinant DNA

91
Q

Transgenic Organisms

A

Organisms which have been genetically engineered to include a gene from a different species

92
Q

Reporter Gene

A

Desired gene inserted into reporter gene sequence so it doesn’t work. Cells not displaying reporter property (e.g.: fluorescence) have taken up gene. Used to identify which bacterial cells have taken up recombinant DNA

93
Q

Knockout Mice

A

Mice that are genetically engineered to have an inactivated gene. Target gene knocked out by incorporating a nucleotide sequence resembling it into an embryonic stem cell, which is then fused with a de-nucleated embryo. Used to study effect of certain genes on diseases.

94
Q

Intron

A

Genetic rubbish (i.e. sections of DNA that do not code for a sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide chain). Removed from mRNA after transcription to form mature mRNA

95
Q

Alternative Splicing

A

When mRNA molecules from the same gene have different combinations of introns retained and re-joined, allowing genetic diversity

96
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Conscious control of skeletal muscle

97
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Subconscious control, allowing reaction to the environment and internal changes and appropriate behaviour modification

98
Q

Cerebrum

A

Conscious thought and reasoning, emotional understanding, language, contralateral control

99
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Hemispheric communication

100
Q

Cerebellum

A

Muscle co-ordination, non-voluntary movement (reflexes)

101
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A

Autonomic control of heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure and peristalsis

102
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Homeostasis, osmoregulation, production of hormones secreted by posterior pituitary gland, production of releasing factors to stimulate hormone secretion from APG

103
Q

Posterior Pituitary Gland

A

Storage and secretion of hormones produced by hypothalamus

104
Q

Anterior Pituitary Gland

A

Production and secretion of hormones

105
Q

Axon

A

A single elongated nerve fibre extending away from the cell body

106
Q

Dendrite

A

A short extension of cell and cytoplasm to increase the surface area of the neurone for receiving impulses from other neurones

107
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

Layers of plasma membrane produced by Schwann cells. Wrap the axon and make it impermeable to Na+/K+

108
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Small (2-3 um) gaps every 1-3 mm along the axon. Sites of depolarisation allowing saltatory conduction, so faster conduction of nerve impulses

109
Q

Resting Potential

A

When a neurone is not transmitting an impulse or action potential (approx. 60 mV)

110
Q

Refractory Period

A

The period in which no further action potentials can be generated

111
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

When an action potential ‘jumps’ from one node to another. Increases transmission speed and conserves energy, so fewer ion pumps or channels are needed

112
Q

Synapse

A

A junction between two neurones, or between a neurone and an effector

113
Q

Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential

A

Increased likelihood of action potentials occurring in post-synaptic neurone, so membrane potential become less negative

114
Q

Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential

A

Decreased likelihood of an action potential occurring in post-synaptic neurone, so membrane potential becomes less negative

115
Q

Summation

A

The effect of combined neurotransmitters

116
Q

Reflex Arc

A

To allow rapid responses to prevent harm to the body

117
Q

Plantar Reflex

A

Indicates brain or spinal cord damage. Bottom of the foot is poked. Normal = flex down. Abnormal = flex up

118
Q

Pupillary Light Reflex

A

Indicates damage to brain or optic nerve. Light shone in both eyes = should constrict to the same degree

119
Q

Acquired Brain Injury

A

Any brain injury that occurs after birth

120
Q

Limbic System

A

Long term memory creation, behaviour and emotions. Influences endocrine system and autonomic nervous system

121
Q

Addiction

A

When a tolerance to a substance builds up so that more of it is required to produce the same effect

122
Q

Dependency

A

When a substance is required by the body for normal functioning

123
Q

Macular Degeneration

A

A loss of cone cells from the fovea

124
Q

Farnsworth-Munsell 1000 Hue Test

A

Arranging coloured caps in hue order. Can be used as an industry test

125
Q

OCT Scan

A

Optical Coherence Tomography. Optical beam directed at tissue (normally retina) so light can be reflected and is collected

126
Q

Retinal Detachment

A

Retina comes away from blood supply in choroid. Results in lack of oxygen and glucose to retinal cells for aerobic respiration

127
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

A form of dementia. A reduction in cognitive ability associated with gradual brain cell death

128
Q

Familial Alzheimer’s disease

A

A family history of AD attributed to susceptibility

Some alleles cause early onset

Approx. 0.1% of cases are autosomal dominant inheritance

129
Q

Tau Proteins

A

Proteins that stabilise microtubules. Abundant in CNS neurones

130
Q

Presbycusis

A

Age-related hearing loss due to the damage and death of hair cells in the cochlea and neurones in the auditory nerve

131
Q

Visual Impairment

A

A severe reduction in vision that cannot be corrected with standard glasses or contact lenses and reduces a person’s ability to function at certain or all tasks

132
Q

Age-Related Macular Degeneration

A

A loss of central vision that results from a loss of effective function in the macular

133
Q

Dry ARMD

A

Cellular debris (drusen) accumulates between retina and choroid, causing retina to detach

134
Q

Wet ARMD

A

Neovascular. Abnormal blood vessel growth in the choroid causing leaking of fluid into retina, leads to scarring of macular. Retina can detach from choroid

135
Q

Cataracts

A

A loss of transparency of the lens, resulting in cloudy vision

136
Q

Glaucoma

A

Damage of the optic nerve due to increased pressure from a lack of drainage

137
Q

Chronic Open-Angle Glaucoma

A

Blockage of drainage from aqueous humour

138
Q

Primary Angle-Closure Glaucoma

A

Touching of iris and cornea blocks drainage channels

139
Q

Secondary Glaucoma

A

Glaucoma following another eye condition

140
Q

Congenital Glaucoma

A

Develops just after birth

141
Q

Homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a stable internal environment

142
Q

Set Point

A

The desired value that the negative feedback mechanism operates around

143
Q

Feedback Loop

A

The pathway which returns an altered factor back to its set point, and informs receptors of the change to the system

144
Q

Baroreceptors

A

Detect changes in blood pressure in aorta, carotid artery and vena cava

145
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Detect oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the plasma and plasma pH in the aorta, carotid artery and medulla oblongata

146
Q

Thermoregulation

A

The ability to regulate internal body temperature, irrespective of external temperature changes

147
Q

Hypothermia

A

When internal body temperature is below 35 .C

148
Q

Endocrine Gland

A

Produces and secretes hormones directly into the plasma

149
Q

Exocrine Gland

A

Produces digestive enzymes and releases them via a duct into the duodenum

150
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

Blood glucose concentration outside the normal range

151
Q

Ultrafiltration

A

The filtering of the blood at a molecular level

152
Q

Selective Reabsorption

A

Absorption of useful molecules back into the blood from the fluid in the nephron tubule

153
Q

Osmoregulation

A

The regulation of the water potential of body fluids

154
Q

ADH

A

A hormone produced by specialised nerve cells known as neurosecretory cells

Biology Extras (4 decks)

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