Year 1 and 2 Flashcards
Operant Conditioning (theorist)
Skinner
Operant Conditioning
The use of reinforcement to ensure that the correct responses are repeated.
Characteristics of Operant Conditioning
Based on trial and error
Coach may manipulate the environment (reinforcement), which shapes behaviour
How does Operant Conditioning work
Success acts as a satisfier to strengthen link between stimulus and response ∵ likely to be repeated
Positive reinforcement
When a pleasant stimulus is given to increase the likelihood of correct responses occurring in the future (medal. praise)
Negative reinforcement
Promotes correct actions occurring to a stimulus by taking away an unpleasant stimulus when the performer does it right (withdrawing criticism)
Punishment
When a coach gives an unpleasant stimulus to prevent actions from happening again (red card, fines, dropped)
Observational learning (theorist)
Bandura
Observational learning
suggests that both un/acceptable behaviour can be learnt by copying others
Observational learning process
Attention - Retention - Motor production - Motivation
Attention
Making it clear what is the relevant cue
Observational learning example
A child knee sliding after a goal
Retention
the ability to remember the important information
Motor production
making sure the performer is physically able to copy the demonstration
in the early stages easy goals should be set and then slowly progressing
Motivation
the drive necessary to copy the demonstration, can be motivated through positive reinforcement
Conditions for observational learning
(likely to be copied if behaviours are)
performed by player of a similar ability
they are reinforced
they are powerful visually
they are consistent
they are relevant
Social development theory (theorist)
Vygotsky
Social development theory
interactions with others, mostly by influential others such as MKOs, shapes behaviour
Inter-psychological learning
Skills are learnt from the coach where the MKO gives back advice and feedback
Intra-psychological learning
once advice has been absorbed, learning happens intrinsically where the learner uses cognitive aspects to analyse and construct actions
Constructivism
you build upon what you already know
MKOs may help in the development of the skills
During the intra-psychological learning, the learning accesses their level and what steps are required in order to progress
Social development theory stages
What can I do alone
What can I do with help
What can I not do yet
Insight Learning (theorist)
Gestaltist
Insight learning
Existing knowledge is used to form an idea on how to tackle a situation
This is from their general sporting knowledge
If successful, the tactic will be used in the future in a similar manner.
Why does insight learning provide a sense of satisfaction and motivation instrinsically
It is worked out by the athlete
Drawbacks of insight learning
As novices may not have enough experience/sufficient general sporting knowledge to generate their solutions it may not be appropriate for all learners
Trait theory (personality)
Innate characteristics (which are stable and enduring) shape behaviour
Drawbacks of trait theory WRT personality
It does not account for personality change , for example behaviour is likely to change if given a red card
It also does not consider personality can be formed by experience
Social learning theory (personality)
we learn by observing others
offering how personalities can develop
through socialisation
Process of social learning theory
Observe - identify - reinforce - copy
Interactionist perspective combination (personality)
trait theory + social learning theory
behaviour adapts depending on the situation one is placed in
Lewin’s approach
B = f(PxE)
Hollander approach to personality
- The core of the performer - their values and beliefs
- Typical responses - inherent traits towards specific situations
- Role-related behaviour - which the performer adopts when required
How can the Interactionist perspective improve performance
A coach can predict potentially aggressive behaviour and substitute player (Granit Xhaka)
A coach can identify situations that reduce performance and rein-act the situation in training
Ways to change attitudes
Cognitive dissonance and persuasive communication
Triadic model
Cognitive (Triadic model)
Knowledge and beliefs
Affective (Triadic model)
Feelings and emotions
Behavioural (Triadic model)
Actual behaviour
Cognitive Dissonance
when a coach puts pressure on one or more of the attitude components so the performer becomes uneasy and motivated to change behaviour
Examples of cognitive dissonance
Player being given new information (pointing out the benefits of exercising, may lead to person exercising)
Making the activity less tedious
Using rewards as a form of reinforcement
Specialist/role model bought in to encourage participation
Persuasive communication
As attitudes are fairly stable:
communication needs to be relevant and important
needs to be understood
come from a high status individual
has to be the right timing
Instinct theory (aggression)
an evolutionary theory that suggest performers are born with aggressive instincts, this can surface with enough provocation
Drawbacks of instinct theory (aggression)
Not all aggression is spontaneous and reactive
some aggression is learnt and pre-intended
rather than experiencing catharsis some players increase their aggression levels.
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
when goals are blocked, frustration increases
a build up of frustration may lead to aggressive tendencies
catharsis may lower aggression
what happens if a performer is unable to reduce aggression levels (frust-agr)
a form of self-punishment will occur and even more frustration will occur ∵ increased aggressive drive
Catharsis
Letting off steam ∵ aggressive drive will be reduced
Why do players react aggressively:
losing
poor performance
disagreement with referee
pressure
Aggressive cue hypothesis
aggressive behaviour will occur when certain learnt cues are present
Aggressive cue hypothesis (theorist)
Berkowitz
Other cues for aggressive acts (ag-cue)
away rival fixtures (a form of pressure)
sporting equipment (racquets)
people
a set piece may encourage aggression
Social learning theory (aggression)
Aggression can be seen as a learnt response, particularly if it is reinforced
Social learning theory is also known as
Observational learning
Social learning theory (theorist)
Bandura
Bandura process
Observe - identify - reinforce - copy
Behavioural effects due to the presence of others (theorist)
Zajonc
Behavioural effects due to the presence of others (who are the others)
The audience
The co-actors (not within the game, ppl playing 1t1b)
The competitors
The social reinforcers (coaches)
Passive “others”
Audience and co-actors
Interactive “others”
Competitors and social reinforcers
Social facilitation
Often experienced by an expert; copes with the demands of the crowd causing motivation and increased skill performance
Social inhibition
When an individual is unable to cope with the demands of the crowd causing anxiety and over arousal.
Steiner’s model of team performance
Actual productivity = potential productivity - losses due to faulty processes
What does Steiner’s model of team performance show
how the team with “worse” players are able to beat the team with “better” players
The faulty processes
co-ordination and motivational problems
Coordination problems WRT steiners model
tactics
communication
motivational problems WRT steiners model
social loafing
ringlemann effect
Ringlemann effect
when the individual effort within a group reduces with group size
social loafing
the individual loss of motivation in a team as a result of the lack of performance identification
causes of social loafing
lack of confidence in own ability
unnatural position
poor leadership
lack of performance identification
Vealey model of sports confidence
confidence gained in one area of sport can be used to improve confidence in a different area
Competitive orientation
the degree to which a performer is attracted to challenging situations
What ideas did Vealey combine
trait and state confidence
Trait confidence
The degree of certainty individuals “usually” possess about their ability to succeed, which is innate and inherited.
State confidence
The belief of certainty individuals possess at a “particular moment” about their ability to succeed.
If a skill has been performed in the past successfully (vealey)
State and trait confidence will be high
Vealeys model (image)
Self-efficacy (confidence) (theorist)
Bandura
Self-efficacy suggests that confidence..
may vary moment to moment depending on the situation
Self-efficacy definition
the belief to master a specific sporting situation
Factors affecting Self-efficacy
performance accomplishments (past Ws/Ls)
vicarious experience (watching people take dubs)
verbal persuasion (praise from coach)
emotional arousal
Types of leaders
prescribed and emergent
Qualities of a leader
charisma
communication
experience
inspirational
What 3 styles of leadership did Lewin identify
Autocratic
Democratic
Laissez-faire
Autocratic leadership and characteristics
task oriented style where the leader dicates instructions
beginners
high danger
short for time
hostile group
Things are going good/bad
Democratic leadership and characteristics
person oriented style where the leader seeks opinions from the group to aid decision making
experienced group
good relationships
respected opinions
Laissez-faire leadership and characteristics
the leader does very little and leaves the group to it
common more so within autonomous learners
leader acts a consultant
can potentially showcase emergent leaders
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Either task centred or person centred
What impacts Fiedler’s Contingency Model
a favourable situation
Why would a leader adopt a task centred approach (FCM)
good or bad result
high levels of danger
short for time
Why would a leader adopt a person centred approach (FCM)
good cohesion
things are going moderately well (midtable)
experienced group
small group
opinions need to be valued by leader
most favourable situation
leader commands respect
high motivation
task is clear
high ability
harmony within group
least favourable situation
little respect for coach
low motivation
task is unclear
low ability
hostile group
Chelladurai’s Multi-dimensional Model of Leadership
if required, actual and preferred behaviour all match, the performance will be optimised
Attentional control and cue utilisation
a consequence of stress is that the performer may focus on the wrong stimuli (lose concentration)
Attentional narrowing
stress and arousal ↑
ability to take in new information ↓
Cue utilisation
the ability to process information is linked to the level of arousal
High arousal consequences on information
narrow attentional field and info missed
moderate arousal consequences on information
relevant information recieved
low arousal consequences on information
broad attention field, overloaded information and may lead to confusion
Nideffer suggestion
choose an attentional style to match the situation
what are the attentional styles
broad (when multiple cues identified)
narrow (when it’s best to focus on a few cues)
external (info drawn from environment)
internal (within)
narrow and internal attentional style
mental practise of one or two cues
attribution theory
the perception of the reason for an outcome of an event
narrow and external attentional style
mental analysis of one or two cues
Locus of causality (theorist)
Weiner
Locus of causality (Weiner) reasons for winning and losing
internal and external
(causality of te attributes)
example of internal weiners
if you played well
example of external weiners
if the result was down to a referees decision
Stability dimension
reasons for winning and losing can be stable or unstable
Locus of causality diagram
Attribution relationship with effort
attribution can promote task persistance
Self-serving bias
winning: attributed towards the individual (stable and internal)
losing: attributed towards external factors such as luck or the ref (unstable and external)
helps promote self esteem
when losing, what happens if attributed internal or stable
lose motivation
Learned helplessness
performer begins to doubt they can complete the task
(internal and stable)
developed through negative feedback and criticism as a result of lack of success
Attribution retraining
strategy employed by coach to move attribution towards external and unstable factors
the coach can use attribution retraining through
motivation by reinforcement
set achievable and easy goals
stress any personal improvements
point out if opponents are higher difficulty
learned helplessness is linked to
confidence
cognitive stress management
imagery visualisation and positive self talk
may help avoid learned helplessness
somatic stress management
centring (realigning breathing)
may help avoid learned helplessness
mastery orientation
A state of mind where confidence is high
belief in their own ability, success is repeatable and stable
failure is temporary and changeable
What happens to if the outcome of an event is attributed wrongfully
wrong attribution
exacerbated low confidence
possible learned helplessness
What happens to if the outcome of an event is attributed correctly
correct attributions
enhanced confidence
mastery orientation (state of mind where confidence is high)
Drawback of insight learning (evaluation)
does help to develop cognitive processes for associative learners.
