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Human biology > Y12 The Nervous System > Flashcards

Y12 The Nervous System Flashcards

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1
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The maintenance of a constant internal environment.

  • 37° temperature
  • body fluid ( water)
  • ion concentration
  • glucose
  • blood pressure
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2
Q

What are the steps of the feedback system?

A
  1. stimulus
  2. receptor
  3. Modulator
  4. effector
  5. Response
  6. Feedback
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3
Q

What happens in the stimulus stage of the feedback system?

A

A change in the environment, initiates a response.

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4
Q

What happens in the receptor stage of the feedback system?

A

Sensory cells detect the stimulus

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5
Q

List 5 types of sensory cell receptors

A 
Thermoreceptors
Chemoreceptors 
Pressoreceptors
Nocireceptors
Baroreceptors
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6
Q

What do thermoreceptors detect?

A

Heat and cold. temperature change

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7
Q

What do osmoreceptors detect?

A

Detect changes in osmotic pressure ( pressure applied to solvents is osmosis?)

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8
Q

What do chemoreceptors detect?

A

Detect changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide

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9
Q

What do pressoreceptors detect?

A

Detect changes in blood pressure

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10
Q

What do baroreceptors detect?

A

Detect changes in blood pressure.

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11
Q

What do nocireceptors detect?

A

Respond to damaging or potentially damaging stimuli ( pain receptors)

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12
Q

What happens in the modulator stage of the feedback system?

A

The modulator is a control centre which processes the message from the receptors

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13
Q

What happens in the effector stage of the feedback system?

A

Effectors are Muscles, glands or cells which receive messages from the modulator

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14
Q

What happens in the response stage of the feedback system?

A

The appropriate response is made by the effector

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15
Q

What happens in the feedback stage of the feedback system?

A

The response changes the original stimulus.
Can either be positive feedback or negative.
If POSITIVE= process enhances stimulus
If NEGATIVE= process opposes stimulus

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16
Q

What is the nature of messages in the nervous system?

A

Electrical impulses and neurotransmitters

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17
Q

What is the nature of messages in the endocrine system?

A

Hormones

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18
Q

How are messages transported in the nervous system?

A

Nerve impulses are Transported Along the membrane of neurons

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19
Q

How are messages transported in the endocrine system?

A

By the bloodstream

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20
Q

What cells are affected by nerve impulses in the nervous system?

A

muscles, gland cells (Effectors) and other neurons

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21
Q

What cells are affected by hormones in the endocrine system?

A

All body cells

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22
Q

What type of response occurs in the nervous system?

A

Usually local and specific responses

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23
Q

What type of response occurs in the endocrine system?

A

May be very general and widespread

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24
Q

How long does it normally take to respond to a nerve impulse?

A

Rapid response- within milliseconds

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25
Q

How long does it normally take to respond to hormones?

A

Slower response- from seconds to days

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26
Q

What is the duration of a nerve impulse response

A

Brief- stops quickly when the stimulus starts

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27
Q

How long does it take to respond to hormone

A

Longer lasting and may continue long after the stimulus has stopped

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28
Q

What are the types functional neurons?

A

Functional

  • sensory
  • motor
  • interneuron
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29
Q

What are sensory (receptor) neurons?

A
  • receptor neurons

- carry messages from receptors in the sense organs or in the skin to the CNS ( brain and spinal cord)

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30
Q

What are motor (effector) neurons?

A
  • effector neurons

- carry messages from the CNS to the muscles and glands ( the effectors)

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31
Q

What are interneuron?

A
  • association neurons, connector neurons or relay neurons

- located in the CNS and are links between sensory and motor neurons

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32
Q

What are the types of structural neurons?

A
  • Multipolar neurons
  • bipolar neurons
  • unipolar neurons
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33
Q

Describe multipolar neurons?

A
  • one axon and multiple dendrites extending from cell body
  • most common
  • includes most interneurons in the brain and spine. and motor neurons that carry messages to skeletal muscles
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34
Q

Describe bipolar neurons?

A
  • one axon and one dendrite
  • axon and dendrite may have branches at ends
  • bipolar neurons are found in eye, ear and nose.
  • take impulses from receptor cells to other neurons
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35
Q

Describe unipolar neurons?

A
  • one axon extension.
  • body cell to one side of it
  • most sensory neurons that carry messages to spinal cord are this type
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36
Q

What do functional neurons do?

A

Transmit information from the receptor to the effector to respond rapidly to stimuli with the purpose of maintaining homeostasis

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37
Q

Where does a nerve impulse start?

A
  • in the dendrite
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38
Q

How does an impulse travel?

A

VIEW DIAGRAM

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39
Q

What is the first step of nerve impulse generational?

A
  1. Resting neuron contains POTENTIAL ENERGY. This comes from the difference between the electrical charge on the inside and outside of a neuron.
  2. Nerve impulse = ACTION POTENTIAL
    A change in the EXtracellular fluid and intracellular fluid generates an impulse that propagates ( moves) along neuron.
    ~The nerve impulse undergoes polarisation, depolarisation, repolarisation, and hyperpolarisation~
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40
Q

What happens at polarisation?

A

there is a + EF (due to sodium) & - IF (due to large - proteins).
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL= -70mv

  • potassium readily diffuses through cell membrane into EF. The Na/ K pump actively pumps potassium back into cell.
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41
Q

What happens at depolarisation?

A

there is a - EF & + IF ( charges have swapped)

  • a stimulus opens some Na+ voltage gated channels and Na+ moves into cell causing cell to become positive .
  • when membrane potential reaches -55mv an all or none response occurs
  • all Na+ voltage channels open in that area causing an influx of Na+ = positive IF
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42
Q

What happens at repolarisation?

A

Charges return to + EF & - IF

  • Na+ ions diffuse through IF causing in adjacent parts of the neuron to depolarise. Na+ also stimulates k+ voltage gate channels to open.
  • k+ moves out of the cell into the EF making it more positive. Thence IF is - charged ( large - proteins) and Charges are restored
  • This process of repolarisation generates ACTION POTENTIAL which stimulates the Na+ V.G channel in adjacent areas to open.
  • the Na+/ K+ pump restores ionic distribution Na+ out and K+ in. While the cell segment is restoring back to polarised state. It is in REFARACTORY PERIOD. This prevents the neuron from being stimulated again and prevents the nerve impulse from travelling backwards
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43
Q

What happens at hyper polarisation?

A
  • the charges is more negative than resting ( in the cell?) causing K+ V.G to close
  • K+/Na+ pump is restoring the ionic distribution
  • cell is in refractory period and cannot be restimulated and the nerve impulse is prevented from moving backwards
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44
Q

What are the 2 ways a nerve impulse travels along a neuron?

A

Saltatory conduction- mylinated conduction

Continuous conduction- unmylinated conduction

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45
Q

How does saltatory conduction occur? Process?

A
  • nerve impulses Jump from one node to the next, allowing nerve impulses to travel much faster
  • it jumps from nodes because nerve fibres are insulated from the extracellular fluids at the nodes of ranvier and ions cannot flow between the inside and outside of the cell membrane and action potential cannot form.
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46
Q

How does continuous conduction occur? Presses?

A
  • Each action potential generates another action potential just in front of it, this repeats along the length of the whole membrane
  • depolarisation in one area of the membrane causes a local current flow between neighbouring areas on the membrane.
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47
Q

What is a neuromuscular junction?

A

Junction between branches of a motor neuron and a muscle fibre; also called the motor end plate

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48
Q

What is a synapse?

A
  • At Junction between branches of adjacent neurons there is a gap called the synapse.
  • most occur between the end of branch of an axon of one neuron and dendrite or the cell body of another neuron.
    Messages are passed across the synapse
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49
Q

How does transmission occur across a synapse?

A
  1. Action potential causes depolarisation of axon terminal membrane, causing calcium V.G channels to open causing calcium to enter the cell.
50
Q

What happens during transmission of an impulse across a synapse after the calcium has entered the cell?

A
  1. Calcium ions bind to the synaptic vesicles which contain neurotransmitters. These vesicles move and then bind to the presynaptic membrane allowing neurotransmitters to be released via exocytosis into synaptic cleft.
51
Q

What happens during impulse transmission across a synapse after neurotransmitters are be released via exocytosis into synaptic cleft.

A
  1. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors.
    i.e sodium ligand channels
    Protein channels open causing sodium to enter the cell causing depolarisation of post synaptic membrane
  2. Action potential probates through post synaptic membrane. Neurotransmitters are broken down and removed from receptor mediated proteins.
    i. e Aceylcholinenesterase breaks down Acetylcholine into Acetyl CoA and chlorine. Acetyl coa and chlorine are then recycled, taken up into the cell via endocytosis and converted back into acetylcholine at the axon terminal
52
Q

Describe the parietal cerebral lobe?

A
  • It is in between the frontal and occipital lobe
  • primary sensory strip and association area
  • processes tactile information, pain etc.
53
Q

Describe the frontal lobe?

A
  • front of the brain
  • voluntary control of muscles
  • judgement, emotions, motivation and memory
  • categorising, thinking and expressive language
54
Q

Describe the occipital lobe?

A
  • Helps with vision

- behind the parietal lobe

55
Q

Describe the temporal lobe!

A
  • olfactory (smelling) and auditory areas
  • speech auditory processing
  • processing of emotional responses
56
Q

Physical features of the cerebrum?

A
  • largest part of brain
  • divided into four lobes
  • cerebral cortex is its outer layer
  • below cerebral cortex is white matter
  • convoluted surface
57
Q

Function of cerebrum?

A

Frontal- primary motor cortex, responsible for voluntary movement of muscles, judgement and emotions

Temporal- olfactory, auditory processing and emotional responses

Occipital- vision

Parietal- processing tactile information, pain ect. Sensory association area

58
Q

Physical features of cerebral cortex?

A
  • 2-4cm thick
  • outer surface of cerebrum
  • grey matter
59
Q

Function of cerebral cortex?

A

Higher order functions such as thinking, reasoning, memory, learning and conscious awareness of surroundings

60
Q

Physical features of frontal lobe?

A

Front of brain…

61
Q

Function of frontal lobe?

A
  • Primary motor cortex
  • responsible for voluntary control of muscles
  • forming strong memories, thinking, reasoning and expressive language
62
Q

Physical features of the corpus callosum?

A
  • wide band of nerve fibres that lie underneath cerebrum at the base of the longitudinal fissure
  • nerve fibres cross from one cerebral hemisphere to another allowing communication between sides
63
Q

Functions of corpus callosum?

A

Communication between two hemispheres

64
Q

Physical features of the thalamus?

A
  • Large
  • dual lobed
  • mass of grey matter
  • beneath cerebral cortex
65
Q

Functions of thalamus

A
  • directs nerve impulses to correct parts of brain
  • relate sensory motor signals to cerebral cortex
  • receives auditory and visual signals
66
Q

Physical features of hypothalamus?

A
  • middle of the brain, can’t be seen from outside

- small

67
Q

Function of hypothalamus?

A
  • involved in homeostasis
  • eg, regulation of autonomic nervous system ( regulation of heart rate, blood pressure etc.)
  • regulation of body temp, food and water intake, patterns of waking and sleeping and control of urinary bladder
68
Q

Physical features of pituitary gland?

A
  • ductless
  • middle of the base of skull
  • pea sized
  • below hypothalamus
69
Q

Function or pituitary gland?

A
  • secretes hormones directly into bloodstream and produces hormones for various bodily functions
70
Q

Physical features of pons?

A
  • part of brain stem

- a bulge

71
Q

Functions of pons?

A
  • message station that directs Impulses
  • relays signals from forebrain to cerebellum
  • has sensory soles in hearing, taste and facial sensations
72
Q

Physical features of spinal cord?

A
  • roughly cylindrical in structure
  • extends from the large opening at the base of the skull to the second lumbar vertebrae
  • about 44cm
  • enclosed in vertebrae canal and bone
  • cross section shows grey matter at center surrounded by white matter (g matter is H shape )
73
Q

Function of spinal cord?

A
  • Carry sensory impulses up to brain and motor impulses down from brain
  • integrate certain reflexes (fast automatic responses)
74
Q

Physical features of cerebellum!

A
  • under rear part of cerebrum
  • second largest part of brain
  • surface folded into series of parallel ridges
  • outer folded part is grey matter
  • inside is white matter that branches to all parts of cerebellum
75
Q

Functions of cerebellum?

A
  • Control over posture, balance and coordination of voluntary muscle movement
  • does this by receiving sensory information from inner ear ( for posture and balance ) and from stretch receptors in skeletal muscles
76
Q

Physical features of medulla oblongata?

A
  • continuation of spinal cord
  • 3cm long
  • extends from where spinal cord enters skull
  • nerve fibres pass through going to and from parts of brain
77
Q

Functions of medulla oblongata?

A

Cardiac centre- regulates the rate and force of heart rate

Respiratory centre- controls rate and depth of breathing

Vasomotor centre- regulates diameter of blood vessels

+ others they regulate reflexes of swallowing, sneezing and vomiting.
- centres are controlled by higher centres in the brain.

78
Q

What type/part of neuron would Salutatory conduction occur in?

A

Myelinated

79
Q

What type/part of neuron continuous conduction occur in?

A

Unmylinated

80
Q

Speed of Saltutory conduction?

A

Saltatory = 140 m/s

81
Q

Speed of continuous conduction?

A

Continuous = 2 m/s

82
Q

structural features of a sensory neurons?

A
  • unipolar
  • myelinated
  • sense receptors on the end of the axons. Dendrites are attached to receptors
  • axon terminals of on the opposite side of the axon
83
Q

structural features of a inter neurons?

A
  • multipolar
  • multipolar
  • dendrites surround cellbody
84
Q

structural features of a motor neurons?

A
  • multipolar
  • mylinated
  • effectors on one end and dendrites on other surrounding cell body
85
Q

From the peripheral nervous system where does an impules go?

A

Either via the after afferent division (sensory) of the Efferent division (motor)

86
Q

What is the afferent pathway?

A

Going towards the brain

87
Q

What is the efferent pathway?

A

(Exiting) going away from the brain

88
Q

Where do impulses of the afferent route come from?

A

They come from either somatic sensory neurons or visceral sensory neurons

Somatic sensory-information from skin and muscles

Visceral sensory- information from internal organs

89
Q

What are the two route motor impulses may take?

A

Somatic- sends impulses to skin and muscles

autonomic- sends impulses to involuntary muscles, organs

90
Q

Where do impulses that travel via the Autonomic nervous system division go?

A

Via the sympathetic route or the parasympathetic route.
Sympathetic- controls body when active; fight of flight response

Parasympathetic- controls body when resting, quiet

91
Q

From the peripheral nervous system, where does an imuulse go ( when it has come from either afferent or efferent pathway)

A

To the CNS and back

92
Q

Features of the spinal cord?

A
  • dorsal root with ganglion ( lump)
  • dorsal root (back of spine, vertebrae)
  • sensory neuron
  • ganglion ( cell bodies on sensory neurons)
  • interneuron
  • central canal ( inside H shaped grey matter)
  • white matter ( surrounding H)
  • motor neuron through ventral root
93
Q

What does the spinal column contain?

A
  • vertebrae ( bones forming the backbone)
  • vertebral Canal ( fat, blood vessels, connective tissue which provide extra cushioning)
  • meninges and cerebral spinal fluid
94
Q

When a sensory impulse reaches grey matter in spine, how does it get up to the brain? And back.

A

Sensory neuron sends the impulse to an interneuron which sends the impulse to another a sensory neuron which leads it up the ascending tract to the brain. A motor neuron then brings it back down the descending tract sending the impulse to an interneuron which transmits the message to another motor neuron which takes it to the effector.

95
Q

What is a mixed nerve?

A

a nerve containing both sensory and motor fibers

96
Q

What are the protective features of the CNS?

A
  • Skin
  • periosteum
  • bone
  • meninges consisting of the Dura Mater, arachnoid and Pia Mater
97
Q

How does skin protect the CNS?

A

It is the outermost layer it acts as a barrier

98
Q

How does periosteum protect the CNS?

A

Acts as a layer of connective tissue which surrounds bone

99
Q

How does bone protect the CNS?

A

Brain is protected by the skull and the cranium which house it.
Vertebrae also protect spinal cord by covering it

100
Q

What are the layers of the maninges?

A

Dura Mater
Arachnoids
Pia Mater

101
Q

How does the Dura Mater layer of the meninges protect the CNS?

A
  • tough and fibrous
  • sticks close to bones of skull but on inside if vertebral Canal is not so close fitting
  • toughest layer
  • pain sensitive
  • space containing fat, connective tissue and blood vessels which serve as padding
  • ## veins that carry blood from the brain back to heart
102
Q

How does the arachnoids layer of the meninges protect the CNS?

A
  • middle layers
  • filled with web of collagen
  • has cerebral fluid
  • no blood vessels
  • contains CSF
103
Q

How does the Pia Mater layer of the meninges protect the CNS?

A
  • sticks closely to surface of brain and spinal cord
  • very tender
  • rich supply of blood vessels which provide nutrients to nervous tissue
  • help deliver nutrients to brain and spinal cord
104
Q

What does Cerebral spinal fluid do?

A

-occupies space between middle and inner layer of meninges. It is formed fr9m blood and circulates around CNS eventually reentering capillaries

protection: acts as shock absorber
Support: brain floats in it
Transport: takes nutrients to brain cells and spinal cord, removing wastes

105
Q

What is the general function of the autonomic division?

A

Adjustment of internal environment (homeostasis)

106
Q

General function of the somatic division?

A

Response to the external environment

107
Q

Effector affected in the Autonomic division?

A

Heart muscles, involuntary muscles and glands

108
Q

Effectors affected by the somatic division?

A

Skeletal( voluntary) muscles

109
Q

Efferent outwards pathway for the Autonomic division?

A

To nerve fibres from the CNS to the effector with a synapse in a ganglion

110
Q

Efferent ( outward) pathway for somatic division?

A

One nerve fibre from the CNS to the effector; no synapse or ganglion

111
Q

Autonomic division, type of neurotransmitters at effector

A

Acetylcholine or noradrenaline

112
Q

Somatic division, type of neurotransmitters at effector

A

Acetylcholine

113
Q

Is Autonomic division voluntary or involuntary

A

Usually involuntary

114
Q

Is Autonomic division voluntary or involuntary?

A

Usually voluntary

115
Q

How many nerve to get to the target organ?

A

Two sets- sympathetic and parasympathetic

116
Q

How many nerves to get to the target organ?

A

One set

117
Q

What is the effect on the target organ in Autonomic division?

A

Excitation or inhibition

118
Q

What is the effect on the target organ in Autonomic division?

A

Always excitation

119
Q

What is excitation?

A

the process by which nerve cells use their “presynaptic terminals” to stimulate the next receiving nerve cell in line to transmit information onward.

120
Q

What is inhibition?

A

kind of synaptic potential that makes a postsynaptic neuron less likely to generate an action potential.

121
Q

What specifically is the Autonomic nervous system division?

A

Control of the bodies internal environment?….

Human biology (12 decks)

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