ꜰɪɴᴀʟ ᴀꜱꜱᴇꜱꜱᴍᴇɴᴛ · ᴄʜᴀᴘᴛᴇʀ ᴠɪɪɪ & ɪx Flashcards
Define “public opinion” ?
PUBLIC OPINION REFERS TO THE AGGREGATE MEASURE OF BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, JUDGEMENTS, & / OR PREFERENCES OF A POPULATION OVER MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN
Define “sample”. How does it relate to a “population” ? How big is a typical sample in opinion polls conducted today ?
A SAMPLE REFERS TO THE SMALLEST SUBSET OF INDIVIDUALS, ITS DRAWN FROM A POPULATION, TYPICAL SAMPLES ARE 500-1500 PEOPLE
Define “social desirability bias”. How does it impact the accuracy of opinion polls ? & what is the easiest way to overcome it in terms of survey administration ?
SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS REFERS TO THE PROPENSITY TO ANSWER QUESTIONS INACCURATELY IN ORDER TO PUT ONESELF IN THE BEST LIGHT. IT CAN CAUSE UNDERREPRESENTATIVE DATA ABOUT WHAT IS BEING INQUIRED. ANONYMITY IS THE BEST WAY TO AVOID THIS BIAS.
Define “ordering effects”
ORDERING EFFECTS REFERS TO HOW THE ORDER IN WHICH QUESTIONS ARE ASKED AFFECT THE RESPONSES
Define “double-barreled questions”
DOUBLE-BARRELED QUESTIONS REFERS TO HOW RESPONDENTS ARE ASKED ABOUT MORE THAN ONE ISSUE BUT ONLY CAN GIVE ONE ANSWER
Define “leading questions”
LEADING QUESTIONS REFERS TO QUESTIONS WORDED IN A WAY THAT SWAYS THE RESPONDENT TOWARDS ONE SIDE OF AN ARGUMENT
Define “representative sample”. Be sure to know & understand what it means to say a sample is “demographically representative”.
A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE REFERS TO WHEN PROPORTIONALLY REFLECTS THE RELEVANT DIVERSITY OF OPINIONS WITHIN THE DRAWN POPULATION. DEMOGRAPHIC PROPORTIONALITY REFERS TO THE EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATION OF THE RACIAL, ETHNIC, RELIGIOUS, GENDER, & CLASS DIVERSITY OF THE POPULATION.
Be sure to know & understand “nonresponse bias” & how it can lead to an “unrepresentative sample”.
NONRESPONSE BIAS REFERS TO WHEN PEOPLE WITH CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS ARE LESS LIKELY TO RESPOND TO SURVEYS THAN OTHERS AND PRODUCES A SAMPLE THAT UNDERREPRESENTS THOSE LESS LIKELY TO RESPOND
Define “margin of error”.
MARGIN of ERROR REFERS TO THE AMOUNT WITHIN A SPECIFIED CONFIDENCE OF HOW A MEASURED SAMPLE DEVIATES FROM THE TRUE POPULATION VALUE
What does sample size have to do with the margin of error ?
POLLS HAVE A SAMPLE SIZE OF 1500, AND THE AVERAGE MARGIN OF ERROR IS +/- 3 PERCENT. HIGHER MARGIN OF ERROR = LESS PRECISION
Why do pollsters generally not use sample sizes as large as 4,500 ?
PRODUCES A HIGHER MARGIN OF ERROR
Define “the bandwagon effect”.
“THE BANDWAGON EFFECT” REFERS TO PEOPLE WHO DECIDE TO SUPPORT A CAUSE BECAUSE POLLS DEMONSTRATE POPULARITY OF THE CAUSE/CANDIDATE
Make sure to understand the SIX guidelines for being a responsible consumer of polls.
· CONSIDER REPUTATION & POSSIBLE MOTIVES OF POLL CONDUCTORS
· EXAMINE QUESTION WORDING
· CHECK TARGET POPULATION & SAMPLING METHOD
· ASSESS SAMPLE SIZE / MARGIN OF ERROR
· COMPARE ACROSS POLLS & LOOK AT POLL AGGREGATORS
· BE REALISTIC IN EXPECTATIONS
Define “poll aggregators”.
POLL AGGREGATORS REFERS TO WEBSITES THAT GATHER & AVERAGE THE RESULTS OF MULTIPLE POLLS
Define “delegate model of representation” & “trustee model of representation”. What are they ? How do they differ with respect to how they think public opinion should influence government ?
THE DELEGATE MODEL REFERS TO THE VIEW THAT THE REPRESENTATIVE SHOULD FOLLOW THE PREFERENCES OF THE DISTRICT AND THE OPINIONS OF CONSTITUENTS. THE TRUSTEE MODEL REFERS TO THE VIEW THAT THE REPRESENTATIVE SHOULD FOLLOW THEIR OWN JUDGEMENT IN ORDER TO PROMOTE PUBLIC GOOD. DELEGATES HOLD THAT DEMOCRACY IS GOVERNMENT CONTROLLED BY THE PEOPLE. TRUSTEES DISAGREE & SAY THAT IF THAT WERE THE CASE THEN WE NEED A DIRECT DEMOCRACY
Define “political predispositions”.
POLITICAL PREDISPOSITIONS REFERS TO ONES PREEXISTING ATTITUDES, VALUES, BELIEFS, & SOCIAL IDENTITIES THAT CONDITION HOW ONE FORMULATES OPINIONS ABOUT PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Define “political socialization”. How does it relate to “political predispositions” ?
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION REFERS TO THE PROCESS BY WHICH OUR SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT LEADS US TO DEVELOP VALUES, ATTITUDES OR BELIEFS, & SOCIAL IDENTITIES THAT SHADE ORIENTATION TOWARDS GOVERNMENT & POLITICS. OUR SOCIAL EXPOSURE IS SOMETHING THAT CAN INFLUENCE OUR POLITICAL PREDISPOSITIONS
Define “funnel of causality”. How does it relate to “socialization” ?
THE “FUNNEL OF CASUALITY” REFERS TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON POLITICAL ATTITUDES. OVER A LIFETIME, THE FACTORS INFLUENCING US BECOME FEWER / LIMITED
What, according to the textbook, is the most influential agent of socialization on children ?
FAMILY
Be able to describe, in terms of “rational ignorance”, why Americans tend to have low levels of political knowledge. Why, according to the concept of rational ignorance, do these two factors influence levels of knowledge : interest in politics & party identification ?
RATIONAL IGNORANCE REFERS TO WHEN AMERICANS DO NOT BECOME INFORMED ABOUT POLITICS UNLESS THEY ARE PREDISPOSED TOWARDS BEING HIGHLY INTERESTED IN POLITICS & STRONGLY IDENTIFY WITH ONE OF THE TWO MAJOR POLITICAL PARTIES, SINCE MOST DO, THEY STAY UNINFORMED
Define “heuristics”. How does it apply to individuals that are not informed about politics ?
HEURISTICS REFERS TO INFORMATION SHORTCUTS IN ORDER TO GUESS OR INFER WHAT SOMEONE’S OPINION WOULD BE IF THEY HAD TIME TO BECOME BETTER INFORMED
How does the state of the economy influence how people feel about the government & politicians ?
WHEN THE ECONOMY GOES DOWN, THE PEOPLE DISAPPROVE OF WHOEVER IS IN OFFICE ( & VICE VERSA )
Define “media”.
MEDIA REFERS TO THE MEANS OF MASS COMMUNICATION LIKE NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, RADIO, TELEVISION, & THE INTERNET, & JOURNALISTS, EDITORS, NEWS ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. WHO USE THE CHANNELS TO INFORM THE PUBLIC
According to the textbook, the mediating role of the media has always been of concern. Make sure to understand what is meant by “mediating role” & the two general reasons it is of concern.
THE “MEDIATING ROLE” REFERS TO WHEN THE MEDIA MEDIATES BETWEEN POWERFUL AUTHORITIES & THE PEOPLE, & THE CONCERN COMES FROM THE POTENTIAL TO ENLIGHTEN OR MISLEAD THE PUBLIC
The textbook claims the media can potentially mislead the public either when it is free from government control or when it is controlled by the government. Make sure to understand these two different ways media can mislead the public.
THE GOVERNMENT CAN CONTROL THE MEDIA BY USING PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES TO MISLEAD, CONFUSE, DECEIVE, & TIGHTEN CONTROL OVER THE PEOPLE & THE MEDIA FALLS DUE TO ITS OWN BIASES OR ERRORS THAT MISLEAD THE PUBLIC (FREE FROM GOVERNMENT CONTROL)
Define “unmediated communication”.
UNMEDIATED COMMUNICATION REFERS TO THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE VIA SOCIAL MEDIA TO THE PUBLIC WITHOUT TRADITIONAL MEDIA FILTERS
Make sure to know and understand the “upside” & “downside” of unmediated communication according to the textbook.
UPSIDE · POLITICIANS CAN ESCAPE THE UNFAIR / INACCURATE PORTRAYALS OF BIASES WITHIN THE MEDIA
DOWNSIDE · POLITICIANS ESCAPE SCRUTINY FROM JOURNALISTS
Which amendment of the U.S. Constitution & which section of the Georgia Constitution provide protections for the freedom of the press ?
FREEDOM OF THE PRESS IS PROTECTED IN 1ˢᵗ AMENDMENT OF THE US CONSTITUTION
SECTION ONE OF THE GA CONSTITUTION
Where does the term “the press” come from ?
HINT : It has to do with Johannes Gutenberg
The Printing Press
What does “freedom of the press” typically mean today ?
“FREEDOM OF THE PRESS” REFERS TO THE PRESS IS THE ADDITIONAL TYPES OF COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY LIKE RADIO, TELEVISION, & INTERNET & THE GROUP OF PEOPLE LIKE JOURNALISTS WHO INVESTIGATE THE GOVERNMENT
What, according to the textbook, are the “TWO vital functions a free press and independent media play in democracy” ?
1 ) PRESS INVESTIGATIONS OF GOVERNMENT WRONGDOINGS
2 ) FACILITATION OF PUBLIC COMMENTARY & DEBATE OVER PUBLIC INTEREST
What is the “watchdog role” of the press ?
THE “WATCHDOG ROLE” OF THE PRESS REFERS TO ALERTING THE PUBLIC ABOUT WRONGDOINGS
Define the “marketplace of ideas”.
THE “MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS” REFERS TO THE FACILITATION OF PUBLIC COMMENTARY & DEBATE OVER PUBLIC INTEREST & REFINE CITIZENS’ JUDGEMENT ABOUT IMPORTANT MATTERS
How do the “watchdog role” & the “marketplace of ideas” concepts relate to the two vital democratic functions of the free press mentioned previously ?
THEY MAKE UP THE IMPORTANCE OF “FREEDOM OF THE PRESS”
How, according to the textbook, can social media provide a third democratic function ?
SOCIAL MEDIA HELPS TO COORDINATE COLLECTIVE POLITICAL ACTION
What is happening to local newspapers today & what impact is this having on the “watchdog role” of the media at the local level of government ?
LOCAL NEWSPAPERS ARE STRUGGLING TO REMAIN FINANCIALLY STABLE & NEWSROOM EMPLOYMENT IS DECLINING BY 50% & IMPERILING THE “WATCHDOG ROLE” OF MEDIA
The rise of the Information Revolution accompanied by the proliferation of cable news has helped create a political knowledge gap in the United States & elsewhere. How does the textbook describe this process ?
THE USAGE OF SOFT MEDIA PRESENTS THE NEWS IN A MORE ENTERTAINING MANNER THAT CAN ATTRACT YOUNGER VIEWERS
Define “citizen journalism”.
CITIZENS JOURNALISM REFERS TO CITIZENS USING THEIR RECORDING DEVICES TO CAPTURE EVENTS & POST THEM ON THE INTERNET
Net neutrality has been an important issue in the past decade. Define “net neutrality”. What is the debate around it ? How did the Obama & the Trump administration each approach the issue ?
NET NEUTRALITY REFERS TO THE IDEA THAT INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS MUST TREAT ALL WEB TRAFFIC EQUALLY & CAN’T CHARGE DIFFERENT RATES OR DISCRIMINATE AGAINST DIFFERENT WEBSITES IN ANY WAY. THE ISP’s OPPOSE DUE TO WANTING TO CHARGE DIFFERING RATES. OBAMA ADMINISTRATION WANTED TO FORTIFY NET NEUTRALITY RULES & TRUMP OVERTURNED IT & ENDED IT
What is Section 230 ? Why is it controversial in today’s social media environment ?
SECTION 230 STATES THAT ONLINE PLATFORMS CAN’T BE HELD RESPONSIBLE OR SUED BY POSTS MADE BY USERS. THIS IS CONTROVERSIAL BECAUSE SOME WANT THE LAW TO BE MITIGATED WITHOUT COMPROMISING THE FREE EXCHANGE OF IDEAS
Be sure to know & understand each of the following types of media effects (& how they differ from each other) : agenda setting, priming, & framing
AGENDA SETTING · COVERING SOME EVENTS & ISSUES MORE THAN OTHERS
PRIMING · MEDIA AFFECTS HOW WE THINK ABOUT AN ISSUE BY HIGHLIGHTING CERTAIN ASPECTS
FRAMING · MEDIA INFLUENCES HOW WE THINK ABOUT AN ISSUE BY LEADING US TO UNCONSCIOUSLY BRING CERTAIN CONSIDERATIONS TO THE TOP OF OUR HEADS WHEN EVALUATING THE ISSUE
How does social media agenda setting differ from the traditional agenda setting of television news, newspapers, etc. ?
ALGORITHMS INFLUENCE THE AGENDA. THE TRADITIONAL NEWS AGENDA WAS BASED IN EDITORIAL DECISIONS OF WHAT SHOULD BE POSTED
Define the main characteristics of “thematic framing” & “episodic framing” ? Be sure to be able compare each type of frame.
THEMATIC FRAMING UNDERSTANDS THE CAUSES OF EVENTS & PERCEIVES THEM RELATIVE TO BROADER, LONG-TERM TRENDS & PATTERNS. EPISODIC FRAMING LEADS THE NEWS CONSUMER TO REACT TO AN EVENT IN A VISCERAL & EMOTIONAL WAY
Define “ideological bias”.
IDEOLOGICAL BIAS REFERS TO THE SLANTING OF COVERAGE OF ONE OR MORE IDEOLOGICAL / PARTISAN ORIENTATIONS & AGAINST OTHERS
Which ideological group (liberals or conservatives) more often claims the mainstream media to be ideologically biased against them ?
CONSERVATIVES
The textbook recommends exposing oneself to an “ideologically diverse” set of information sources. What does it claim are advantages of doing that ?
DEVELOPING A RICHER UNDERSTANDING OF ISSUES
MAKING SOUNDER JUDGEMENTS
RESPECTIVE DISCUSSIONS & DEBATES
The textbook also recommends relying only on sources that have earned reputations for factual accuracy, credibility, & trustworthiness. This is how you can avoid both “misinformation” & “disinformation”. Make sure to know the definitions of those two terms.
MISINFORMATION IS FALSE INFORMATION
DISINFORMATION IS A FORM OF PROPAGANDA INTENTIONALLY TRYING TO MISLEAD
Competitive market pressures lead news organizations to seek to both reduce the cost of producing news stories & (in order to raise advertising revenue) produce news stories that attract a large audience. How do these two factors (cost pressures & the need to attract revenue) explain why news organizations can fallshort of the aspiration of providing relevant & useful information that helps citizens make wise & just decisions ?
THE “PURPOSE OF JOURNALISM” IS TO PROVIDING CITIZENS WITH THE INFORMATION THEY NEED TO MAKE THE BEST POSSIBLE DECISIONS ABOUT THEIR LIVES, THEIR COMMUNITIES, THEIR SOCIETIES, & THEIR GOVERNMENTS. SIMPLY REPORTING TRUE INFORMATION IS NOT SUFFICIENT FOR JOURNALISM, BUT RATHER, IT NEEDS TO PROVIDE RELEVANT & USEFUL INFORMATION THAT GUIDES CITIZENS IN MAKING WISE & JUST DECISIONS. THE CLAIM THAT THE NEWS MEDIA IS AFFLICTED BY MARKET BIAS IS A CLAIM THAT THE MEDIA OFTEN FALLS SHORT OF THIS STANDARD DUE TO THE NEED TO CONTEND WITH COMPETITIVE MARKET PRESSURES
Define “market bias”.
MARKET BIAS REFERS TO THE PERVASIVE PHENOMENON INFLUENCING NEWS MEDIA CONTENT
