World History Flashcards

Question

ATHENS

Answer 1

The birthplace of pure democracy. Free men would use white and black stones to vote on issues. Athens valued culture, philosophy, education for men Women were excluded from education, voting, and being out/interacting in public. Their primary goal was to stay home and produce babies.

Answer 2

athletic and militaristic. Unlike Athens, Sparta was a monarchy under King Leonidas. Spartan women were strong, educated, and they had rights. It was believed that strong women would make strong sons, so women were empowered.

Answer 3

Advancements in literature, philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle), science, mathematics, astronomy, art Colonization of territory

Answer 4

Persia and Greece often clashed over territory in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey). The Persians conquered several Greek colonies, leading to the alliance of Athens and Sparta to defend Greece. The Persians were defeated at the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C., only for Darius’ son, KING XERXES, to try again and defeat the Spartan 300 at Thermopylae. Xerxes captured and burned Athens. The Athenians formed THE DELIAN LEAGUE and attacked the Persians at sea and won the NAVAL BATTLE OF SALAMIS. The Persian Empire finally fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great of Macedon in 330 B.C.

Answer 5

The peak of a cold war between Sparta and Greece

Answer 6

Son of Philip of Macedonia conquered Persia and many parts of Asia and the Middle East. Alexander made Babylon the capital of his empire. HELLANIZATION

Answer 7

Cyrus the Great—founded the first Persian Empire, also known as the ACHAEMENID EMPIRE

Answer 8

the first Persian king united Mesopotamia (Sumer), Egypt’s Nile Valley and India’s Indus Valley. Cyrus Made the official religion of Persia ZOROASTRIANISM but allowed religious freedom. He was known for being kind and merciful and he freed the Jews and allowed them to go back to Jerusalem to build their temple.

Answer 9

ruled over the Persian Empire when it was at its largest standard currency (PERSIAN DARIC) made ARAMAIC the official language instituted the Satrap System built the ROYAL PALACE AND ROYAL ROADS

Answer 10

Established by Darius the Great (Persia) smaller provinces ruled by local leaders also called “the eyes and ears of the king.

Answer 11

Stops along the ROYAL ROAD developed by King Darius of Persia. combinations of inns and markets

Answer 12

Rome began as a group of small villages of refugees, often called the VILLAGE ON 7 HILLS. three main groups of people: the ETRUSCANS, the LATINS, and the GREEKS. ROMULUS AND REMUS (sons of Mars)

Answer 13

Rome is the BIRTHPLACE OF THE REPUBLIC made up of two consoles and a Senate consisting of 300 of the wealthiest and most prestigious men. Senate positions were lifelong positions. The PLEBEIANS (average working class) weren’t happy with the way the Republic was set up and they called for reform. From this, TRIBUNES were elected to represent the interests of the Plebeians. The Tribunes had veto power in the Senate. During this period, the 12 TABLES OF ROME were introduced. These were Roman Laws posted in public forums for all to see.

Answer 14

Many territory and construction gains, new roads, new buildings (Pantheon). Roman Empire was the largest it would ever be.

Answer 15

Marcus Aurelius’ son became a very unpopular, tyrannical Emperor. He was murdered and ended the PAX ROMANA.

Answer 16

CONSTANTINE the first Roman emperor to profess Christianity. The Christian belief in one god — who was not the emperor — weakened the authority and credibility of the emperor. He split the empire into two parts: the western half centered in Rome and the eastern half centered in Constantinople, a city he named after himself. Nomadic Vandals took North Africa from Spain and then took Carthage from Rome. They eventually conquered Rome itself. After the western part of the Roman Empire fell, the eastern half continued to exist as the BYZANTINE EMPIRE for hundreds of years.

Answer 17

Average working class

Answer 18

Roman Laws posted in public forums for all to see.

Answer 19

Rome and Carthage fought over control of the Mediterranean trade. Rome finally defeated Hannibal and captured Carthage and destroyed the city, enslaved the people, and salted the land.

Answer 20

slave trained as a gladiator, he led a slave Revolt

Answer 21

Roman General in competition with Julius Caesar for control of Rome Pompey defeated Spartacus’ revolt and joined with Crassus and Caesar to form the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. Pompey fled to Egypt.

Answer 22

a group of 3 leaders sharing control of the government | Pompey, Crassus and Caesar

Answer 23

Roman General liked by the people and very successful in battle. elected Consul and not content with that position. He wanted kingship. Caesar went to Egypt chasing after Pompey and fell in love with CLEOPATRA, helped her become ruler of the Egyptian people, and they had a son. As Julius spent much of his time in Egypt he was not attentive to the Roman people. With his dictatorship-like power and neglect of the Roman people, the Senate plotted to kill him on March 15, 44 B.C. (THE IDES OF MARCH)

Answer 24

Julius Caesar’s nephew. He competed with Marc Antony (Julius’s best friend) for control of Rome.

Answer 25

the peace which existed within the Roman Empire.

Answer 26

Egypt was sometimes under the control of foreign powers during this period. Conquered by Alexander the Great After Alexander the Great’s death, a line of rulers descended from Ptolemy Soter, one of Alexander’s generals. The last of these "PTOLEMAIC" RULERS was CLEOPATRA VII, who committed suicide in 30 B.C after the defeat of her forces by the Roman emperor Augustus at the Battle of Actium. After her death, Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire.

Answer 27

BUDDHISM became the prominent religion in northern India and central Asia.

Answer 28

After centuries of fractured kingdoms in India, the Guptas emerged as a unifying empire. This empire brought a resurgence of HINDUISM, culture, and trade with other ancient civilizations. It also saw improvements in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and chemistry.

Answer 29

BEGINNING OF IMPERIAL CHINA. Ruled by SHI HUANGDI. THE GREAT WALL Shi Huangdi’s harsh policies created opposition. He suppressed all philosophies and ordered the destruction of any history or philosophy books which did not correspond to LEGALISM, his family line, or the state of Qin. Anyone in opposition was forced to work on the Great Wall or was put to death.

Answer 30

Shi Huangdi built a tomb and an army of over 8,000 TERRACOTTA WARRIORS

Answer 31

established the SILK ROAD and made contact with India and the Parthian Empire in the Middle East, through which they established trade with the Roman Empire

Answer 32

a collection of tribes in central Europe that shared a similar language, religious beliefs, traditions and culture. Their legacy remains most prominent in Ireland and Great Britain The Roman Empire referred to the Celts as “Galli,” meaning barbarians.

Answer 33

Yucatán in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. MYANS started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities and northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society

Answer 34

capital: TENOCHTITLAN In 1521, invaders led by the Spanish conquistador HERNÁN CORTÉS overthrew the Aztec Empire

Answer 35

Aztec Capital

Answer 36

overthrew the Aztec Empire by force and captured Tenochtitlan

Answer 37

southeastern Peru in the Andes region Capital: Cuzco Despite their power, the Inca were quickly overwhelmed by the diseases and superior weaponry of Spanish invaders led by Francisco Pizarro

Answer 38

short, intense dynasty GRAND CANAL Rebuilding of the Great Wall. IMPERIAL EXAMINATION SYSTEM: select talented individuals for bureaucratic positions.

Answer 39

China's Golden Age PAPER GUNPOWDER PRINTING PRESS COMPASS The earliest known printed book, The Diamond Sutra

Answer 40

The Song Dynasty unified the Central Plain and Southern China. During the Song Dynasty, the handicraft industry as well as domestic and foreign trade boomed. Many merchants and travelers came from abroad.

Answer 41

paper, printing, the compass, and gunpowder Originated in the TANG DYNASTY

Answer 42

KUBLAI KHAN conquered the Song Dynasty and founded the Yuan Dynasty.

Answer 43

Mongol leader unified all the tribes in Mongolia, founded the Mongol khanate, and conquered most of Asia.

Answer 44

GENGHIS KHAN's grandson - conquered the Song Dynasty and founded the Yuan Dynasty.

Answer 45

Venetian merchant who journeyed across Asia at the height of the Mongol Empire. Described China's culture and marvels in his book, Travels.

Answer 46

Began as eastern rome The citizens of Constantinople and the rest of the Eastern Roman Empire identified strongly as Romans and Christians. Muslim armies took Syria, the Holy Land, Egypt and North Africa.

Answer 47

movement spearheaded by Byzantine emperors that denied the holiness of icons, or religious images, and prohibited their worship or veneration. literally “the smashing of images”.

Answer 48

After centuries of debt and decline, the Byzantine Empire finally fell in 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople during the reign of Constantine XI.

Answer 49

In 771, Charlemagne became KING OF THE FRANKS He embarked on a mission to unite all Germanic peoples into one kingdom and convert his subjects to Christianity. Charlemagne waged a bloody, three-decades-long series of battles against the Saxons In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans.

Answer 50

also known as Charles the Great, was a medieval emperor who ruled much of Western Europe became KING OF THE FRANKS

Answer 51

Charlemagne, King of the Franks, ordered the slaughter of some 4,500 Saxons

Answer 52

divided the Frankish Empire into three kingdoms among the surviving sons of the emperor Louis the Pious, the son and successor of Charlemagne.

Answer 53

originated with the partition of the Frankish Empire following the Treaty of Verdun and lasted until the Napoleonic Wars.

Answer 54

Islam started in MECCA Muhammad was the final prophet sent by God According to Islamic texts the angel Gabriel visited MUHAMMAD in 610 A.D. while he was meditating in a cave. The angel ordered Muhammad to recite the words of Allah. Muhammad began preaching throughout Mecca When his message condemned idol worship and polytheism, many of Mecca’s tribal leaders began to see Muhammad and his message as a threat. Muhammed and his followers were eventually forced to emigrate from Mecca to Medina Muhammad settled in Medina, building his Muslim community and gradually gathering acceptance and more followers. In 630 A.D., Muhammed returned to Mecca with a large number of his followers. He entered the city peacefully, and eventually all its citizens accepted Islam.

Answer 55

When Muhammad died, there was debate over who should replace him as leader. This led to a SCHISM in Islam, and two major sects emerged: THE SUNNIS AND THE SHIITES.

Answer 56

Arab Muslim armies conquered territory in the Byzantine empire Within roughly two decades, they created a massive Arab Muslim empire spanning three continents

Answer 57

The Crusades began when BYZANTINE EMPEROR ALEXIUS I, a Christian, asked the Europeans for help against the Muslim SELJUK TURKS. In November 1095, at the Council of Clermont in southern France, the Pope called on Western Christians to take up arms to aid the Byzantines and recapture the Holy Land from Muslim control. Those who joined the armed pilgrimage were promised absolution from sin and eternal glory. beginning of THE KNIGHTS TEMPLAR, TEUTONIC KNIGHTS, and THE HOSPITALLERS. These groups defended the Holy Land and protected pilgrims traveling to and from the region.

Answer 58

King Edward of England died without children to succeed him. After his death, his close friend Harold Godwinson took over the throne, but this was met with opposition from Edward’s cousin, William the Duke of Normandy. A battle ensued in which Harold died and William gained the throne

Answer 59

SOCIAL HIERARCHY was established based on local administrative control and the distribution of land into units (FIEFS). A landowner (LORD) gave a fief, along with a promise of military and legal protection, in return for a payment of some kind from the person who received it (VASSAL). Such payment came in the form of service which could mean military service or the regular payment of produce or money. SERFS were the servants

Answer 60

Spread through the infected bites of fleas or rats, as well as through the air BUBONIC PLAGUE arrived when 12 ships from the Black Sea docked at the Sicilian port of Messina.

Answer 61

THE GREAT CHARTER Issued by King John of England as a practical solution to the political crisis and possible rebellion he faced. Magna Carta established for the first time the principle that everybody, including the king, was subject to the law.

Answer 62

conflict that pitted the kings and kingdoms of France and England against each other from 1337 to 1453. The French kings, possessing the financial and military resources of the most populous and powerful state in western Europe, held the advantage over the smaller, more sparsely populated English kingdom. However, the expeditionary English army, well-disciplined and successfully using their longbows to stop cavalry charges, proved repeatedly victorious over much larger French forces. In 1360, King John of France, in order to save his title, was forced to accept the Treaty of Calais, which granted complete independence to the duchy of Guyenne. However, his son Charles V, with the help of his commander in chief Bertrand du Guesclin, by 1380 had succeeded in reconquering almost all the ceded territory, notably by a series of sieges.

Answer 63

During the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage, Carthaginians invaded Spain and conquered large parts of it. In 409, when the Roman empire started to fall, Gothic tribes invaded the peninsula and re-established their kingdom. Gothic dominance lasted until Muslim armies crossed the STRAIGHT OF GIBRALTAR and defeated RODERIC, the last Visigoth king. The Christian kingdoms in the north then started the reconquest of Spain. The marriage between ISABEL OF CASTILIA and FERDINAND OF ARAGON in 1469 was the turning point of the RECONQUISTA. From then on Muslims rapidly lost territory until they were expelled.

Answer 64

series of battles by Christian states to expel the Muslims (Moors), from the Iberian Peninsula.

Answer 65

conversion of Spain from Islam to Christianity. Thousands of Jews and Moors who didn't want to convert to Christianity were expelled or killed.

Answer 66

Ferdinand and Isabel - SPAIN

Answer 67

conquered the Aztecs of Mexico.

Answer 68

was a Portuguese explorer planned and led the 1519 Spanish expedition to the East Indies across the Pacific to open a maritime trade route

Answer 69

conquered the Incas of Peru in 1533.

Answer 70

PASTORAL NOMADS of the Asian steppe moved according to the seasons and lived in temporary camps of yurts. The nomadic tribes were often at odds with one another until the rise of GENGHIS KHAN.

Answer 71

an army based on fast, light, and highly coordinated cavalry. Expert horsemen and archers

Answer 72

The Mongol’s had several different religious beliefs, but above all, there was a widespread belief in the principal two deities: the Earth or Mother goddess, known as ETUGEN TENGRI, the ‘Blue Sky’ or ‘Eternal Heaven.’ Tengri was seen as a protector god and, crucially, he was thought by Genghis Khan to have given the Mongol people a divine right to rule the entire world.

Answer 73

After Genghis Khan’s death in 1227 disputes among his successors split the empire into four. They became sedentary societies many converted from traditional shamanism to Tibetan Buddhism or Islam.

Answer 74

Japan's culture developed rapidly during the HEIAN ERA. The imperial court turned out enduring art, poetry, and prose. The SAMURAI WARRIOR CLASS developed at this time as well. Samurai lords, called "SHOGUN," took over the government in 1185, and ruled Japan in the name of the emperor until 1868.

Answer 75

In Japanese feudalism - land owners

Answer 76

stressed morality and respect for elders. Influence on Japanese Feudalism: In Japan, it was the moral duty of the daimyo and samurai to protect the peasants and villagers in their region. In return, the peasants and villagers were duty-bound to honor the warriors and pay taxes to them.

Answer 77

``` Emperor Shogun Daimyo Samurai Ronin Peasants Artisans Merchants ```

Answer 78

After devastating invasions by the Japanese at the end of the sixteenth century and by the Manchus of Northeast Asia in the early seventeenth, Korea enforced a policy of strictly limited contact with all other countries.

Answer 79

cultural and intellectual development began in Florence in the late medieval period. Great Italian writers, artists, politicians and others declared that they were participating in an intellectual and artistic revolution that would be much different from what they experienced during the Dark Age

Answer 80

Invented in 1450 allowed for improved communication throughout Europe and for ideas to spread more quickly. As a result, texts which promoted the renewal of traditional Greek and Roman culture and values were printed and distributed to the masses - aiding the renaissance period.

Answer 81

characterized by HUMANISM, REALISM and NATURALISM.

Answer 82

proposed that the Sun, not the Earth, was the center of the solar system.

Answer 83

Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire globe. They discovered new shipping routes to the Americas, India and the Far East, and explorers trekked across areas that weren’t fully mapped.

Answer 84

religious, political, intellectual and cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe. Challenged papal authority and questioned the Catholic Church’s ability to define Christian practice. MARTIN LUTHER JOHN CALVIN HENRY VIII

Answer 85

Led the reformation ninety-five Theses argued against the use and abuse of indulgences which allowed sinners to buy their way into heaven

Answer 86

an Italian explorer working for the English In 1497 he reached Newfoundland

Answer 87

French - founded Quebec City in 1608

Answer 88

series of connected wars trying ti impose Catholicism AUSTRIAN HABSBURGS tried to impose Roman Catholicism on their Protestant subjects in Bohemia. It pitted Protestant against Catholic, the Holy Roman Empire against France, the German princes against the emperor, and France against the Habsburgs of Spain.

Answer 89

keystone of the Reformation, the Peace of Augsburg’s key tenet was “WHOSE REALM, HIS RELIGION,”

Answer 90

ended the THIRTY YEARS' WAR. Established the precedent of peace reached by DIPLOMATIC CONGRESS and a new system of political order in Europe based upon the concept of co-existing sovereign states.

Answer 91

King Charles 1 overstepped his reach by eliminating parliament, imposing outdated taxes, and imposing a new Book of Prayer on the Church of Scotland. When Parliament met in 1640, Charles expected to be granted money and support against the Scots. Instead, Parliament embarked upon a program of legislation to restrict the King’s powers and to eliminate the ‘popish’ practices from the Church. It also tried to gain control of England’s armed forces by means of a Militia Bill. Throughout a series of battles, King Charles was eventually defeated by parliamentary forces led by Oliver Cromwell.

Answer 92

Led the Parliamentary forces in the English Civil War

Answer 93

the view that reason is the main source of knowledge Start of the enlightenment

Answer 94

French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Descartes was the first of the modern rationalists. He thought that only knowledge of eternal truths could be attained by reason alone.

Answer 95

centered around the idea that reason is the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and it advocated such ideals as LIBERTY, PROGRESS, TOLERANCE, FRATERNITY, CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT, and SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE. VOLTAIRE, THOMAS HOBBES, JOHN LOCKE, and JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation.

Answer 96

introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government

Answer 97

replaced the Mongol Empire

Answer 98

The dynasty was founded by a Turkic prince named Bābur Shah Jahan: Under his rule the TAJ MAHAL and the GREAT MOSQUE OF DELHI were built.

Answer 99

Britain had been trading in India since about 1600, but it did not begin to seize large sections of land until 1757, after the BATTLE OF PLASSEY. Many Indians were distressed by the rapid cultural changes imposed by the British. They worried that Hindu and Muslim India would be Christianized. In 1857, a new type of rifle cartridge was given to the soldiers of the British Indian Army. Rumors spread that the cartridges had been greased with pig and cow fat, an abomination to both major Indian religions. On May 10, 1857, THE INDIAN REVOLT began, with Bengali Muslim troops marching to Delhi and pledging their support to the Mughal emperor. After a year-long struggle, the rebels surrendered on June 20, 1858. Following the rebellion, the British government abolished the remaining vestiges of the Mughal Dynasty and the East India Company. During World War I, Britain declared war on Germany on India's behalf, without consulting Indian leaders. About 1.5 million Indian soldiers and laborers were serving in the British Indian Army by the time of the Armistice. A total of 60,000 Indian soldiers were killed or reported missing. Although most of India rallied to the British flag, Bengal and Punjab were less easy to control. Many Indians were eager for independence, and they were led in their struggle by an Indian lawyer and political newcomer, MOHANDAS GANDHI (1869–1948). In April 1919, more than 15,000 unarmed protesters gathered at Amritsar, in Punjab. British troops fired on the crowd, killing hundreds of men, women, and children, even though the official death toll of the AMRITSAR MASSACRE as reported was 379. When World War II broke out, India once again contributed hugely to the British war effort. In addition to troops, the princely states donated substantial amounts of cash. By the end of the war, India had an incredible volunteer army of 2.5 million men.

Answer 100

was formed to share in the EAST INDIAN SPICE TRADE. That trade had been a monopoly of Spain and Portugal until the defeat of the SPANISH ARMADA (1588) by England. The East India Company was primarily interested in the trade of cotton, silk, tea, and opium, but following the Battle of Plassey, it functioned as the military authority in growing sections of India as well.

Answer 101

the British east india company financed their tea trade with illegal opium exports to China. Chinese opposition to that trade precipitated the FIRST OPIUM WAR (1839–42), which resulted in a Chinese defeat and the expansion of British trading privileges.

Answer 102

OSMAN I, a leader of a nomadic Turkic tribe from Anatolia (modern-day Turkey), began conquering the region in the late 13th century by launching raids against the weakening Christian Byzantine Empire. Around 1299, he declared himself supreme leader of the OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The Ottoman Turks set up a formal government and expanded their territory under the leadership of Osman I, Orhan, Murad I and Bayezid I. In 1453, Mehmed II the Conqueror led the Ottoman Turks in seizing the ancient city of Constantinople, the Byzantine Empire’s capital. Sultan Mehmed renamed the city ISTANBUL and made it the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire continued to expand across the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Ottomans were known for their achievements in art, science and medicine. Istanbul and other major cities throughout the empire were recognized as artistic hubs, especially during the reign of SULEIMAN THE MAGNIFICENT. Some of the most popular forms of art included calligraphy, painting, poetry, textiles and carpet weaving, ceramics and music. Ottoman architecture also helped define the culture of the time. Elaborate mosques and public buildings were constructed during this period. Science was also regarded as an important field of study. The Ottomans made some of the greatest advances in medicine: they invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets. Starting in the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire began to lose its economic and military dominance to Europe. In 1683, the Ottoman Turks were defeated at the BATTLE OF VIENNA. This loss added to their already waning status. Over the next hundred years, the empire began to lose key regions of land. After a revolt, Greece won their independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1830. In 1878, the Congress of Berlin declared the independence of Romania, Serbia and Bulgaria. During the Balkan Wars, which took place in 1912 and 1913, the Ottoman Empire lost nearly all their territories in Europe. At the start of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was already in decline. The Ottoman army entered the war in 1914 on the side of the CENTRAL POWERS and were defeated in October 1918. Following the ARMISTICE OF MUDROS, most Ottoman territories were divided between Britain, France, Greece and Russia. TURKEY was declared a republic on October 29, 1923, when MUSTAFA KEMAL ATATÜRK (1881-1938), an army officer, founded the independent Republic of Turkey.

Answer 103

Peter the Great os Russia traveled to Europe to seek allies against the Ottoman Empire and to enlist European technical specialists into his Empire. Although he was unsuccessful in forming a European alliance, Peter saw an opportunity to obtain a naval port in the Baltic Sea. The result was the Great Northern War (1700-21) between Russia and Sweden with Peter emerging victorious and obtaining the Baltic territories for his Empire. Peter's victory in the Great Northern War radically altered the balance of power in northern and eastern Europe. The defeat of Sweden rendered Sweden a minor power once again. Russia, by contrast, had defeated the formerly hegemonic power of the region, recovered Ingria, acquired the Baltic provinces and part of Finland, and founded St. Petersburg as a new city and new capital. These acquisitions gave Russia a series of seaports to support both trade and a naval presence in the Baltic Sea, as well as a shorter route to Western Europe. Victory in the war justified Peter's military, administrative, and economic reforms and the WESTERNIZATION OF RUSSIAN CULTURE. It also enormously reinforced his personal prestige and power.

Answer 104

Russian history begins around 862 when Viking leader OLEG OF NOVGOROD founds the first major East Slavic state, KIEVAN RUS. In 980-1015 Prince Vladimir the Great rules the Rurik dynasty while replacing paganism with Orthodox Christianity. Mongol invasions take place in 1237-1240, destroying cities including Kiev and Moscow. Mongol leader Khan of the Golden Horde conquers and rules Russia until 1480. In 1480-1505 IVAN III—known as IVAN THE GREAT—rules, freeing Russia from the Mongols, and consolidating Muscovite rule. In 1547-1584 the grandson of Ivan the Great —IVAN THE TERRIBLE—becomes the first czar of Russia. He expands the Muscovite territory into Serbia, while instituting a reign of terror against nobility using military rule. After several years of unrest, famine, civil war and invasions, MIKHAIL ROMANOV is coronated as czar at age 16, ending a long period of instability. This is the beginning of the ROMANOV DYNASTY which will rule Russia for three centuries.

Answer 105

The Russian Empire was officially established during the reign of Peter the Great (r. 1694-1725). Peter traveled to Europe to seek allies against the Ottoman Empire and to enlist European technical specialists into his Empire. Although he was unsuccessful in forming a European alliance, Peter saw an opportunity to obtain a naval port in the Baltic Sea. The result was the Great Northern War (1700-21) between Russia and Sweden with Peter emerging victorious and obtaining the Baltic territories for his Empire. Besides securing a port with a direct link to Europe, Peter also reorganized Russian military, education, government, and even the nobility’s tastes, clothing, and customs after Europe. After Peter’s death in 1725, a series of undistinguished rulers continued the cultural “Westernization” and expansion of the Russian Empire in a series of wars: the WAR OF POLISH SUCCESSION (1733-35), the war with the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (1734-39), and the SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (1756-63).

Answer 106

Russian ruler who promoted Enlightenment ideas in the Russian Empire until the Pugachev uprising (1768-74) and publication of Alexander Radishchev’s Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow (1790), where he attacked serfdom and autocracy. By the end of Catherine’s reign, the Russian Empire was one of the most powerful actors on the world stage. However, the Empire had fundamental problems: a military that relied on coercion, a primitive economy based on serfdom, the inability to assimilate new minority nationalities, and a cultural divide between a Europeanized elite and a non-western population. With the majority of the population bound to serfdom, the Russian rulers attempted to modernize along Western lines, a policy that led to the freeing of the serfs in 1861 during the reign of ALEXANDER II (r. 1855-81). Emancipation did not result in improved conditions for the peasant population and internal dissension continued to fester until the last Russian czar, NICHOLAS II was forced to abdicate on March 15, 1917, during World War.

Answer 107

Colonialism/Imperialism: The simple way to distinguish these two is to think of colonialism as practice and imperialism as the idea driving the practice. Colonialism is the IMPLANTING OF SETTLEMENTS on a distant territory. In its most familiar form, colonialism involves the relocation of people to a new territory as permanent settlers. Once established, the settlers maintain their loyalty and allegiance to their mother country while working to harness the new territory’s resources for the economic benefit of that country. In contrast, imperialism is simply the IMPOSITION OF POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CONTROL over a conquered nation or nations through the use of military force and violence. While generally profitable, imperialism, combined with nationalism, began to have negative consequences for European empires, their colonies, and the world. By 1914, an increasing number of conflicts between competing nations would erupt into WORLD WAR I. By the 1940s, former World War I participants Germany and Japan, regaining their imperialistic power, sought to create empires across Europe and Asia, respectively. Driven by their desires to expand their nations’ spheres of world influence, Hitler of Germany and Emperor Hirohito of Japan would join forces to launch World War II.

Answer 108

During the latter half of the nineteenth century, Korea became the object of competing imperial interests as the Chinese empire declined and Western powers began to vie for ascendancy in East Asia. Britain, France, and the United States each attempted to “open up” Korea to trade and diplomatic relations in the 1860s, but the Korean kingdom steadfastly resisted. Japan, China, and Russia were the main rivals for influence on Korea in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and after defeating China and Russia in war between 1895 and 1905, Japan became the predominant power on the Korean peninsula. In 1910 Japan annexed Korea outright as a colony, and for the next 35 years Japan ruled Korea in a manner that was strict and often brutal. Toward the end of the colonial period, the Japanese authorities tried to wipe out Korea’s language and cultural identity and make Koreans culturally Japanese, going so far in 1939 as to compel Koreans to change their names to Japanese ones. However, Japan also brought the beginnings of industrial development to Korea. Modern industries such as steel, cement, and chemical plants were set up in Korea during the 1920s and 1930s, especially in the northern part of the peninsula where coal and hydroelectric power resources were abundant. By the time Japanese colonial rule ended in August 1945, Korea was the second most industrialized country in Asia after Japan itself

Answer 109

The Industrial Revolution marked a period of development in the latter half of the 18th century that transformed largely rural, agrarian societies in Europe and America into industrialized, urban ones. Goods that had once been painstakingly crafted by hand started to be produced in mass quantities by machines in factories, thanks to the introduction of new machines and techniques in textiles, iron making and other industries. Fueled by the game-changing use of STEAM POWER, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain and spread to the rest of the world, including the United States, by the 1830s and ‘40s.

Answer 110

The French Revolution was a watershed event in modern European history that began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte. During this period, French citizens razed and redesigned their country’s political landscape, uprooting centuries-old institutions such as ABSOLUTE MONARCHY and the feudal system. The upheaval was caused by widespread discontent with the French monarchy and the poor economic policies of KING LOUIS XVI, who met his death by guillotine, as did his wife Marie Antoinette. As the 18th century drew to a close, France’s costly involvement in the American Revolution, and extravagant spending by King Louis XVI and his predecessor, had left the country on the brink of bankruptcy. Not only were the royal coffers depleted, but two decades of poor harvests, drought, cattle disease and skyrocketing bread prices had kindled unrest among peasants and the urban poor. The lower class revolted and formed the NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, with the Directory — five men elected from the National Assembly — acting as an executive branch and remaining in power throughout much of John Adams presidency. Four years later, Napoleon Bonaparte and his army overthrew the Directory and signed THE CONVENTION OF 1800 with the United States, a commercial agreement that ended the so-called QUASI WAR. Napoleon would eventually declare himself "Emperor of the French." John Adams had feared just such a chaotic end: A revolution of this sort, he had argued, would lead not to democracy but despotism. France had abolished its monarchy only to find itself under the rule of an emperor.

Answer 111

Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and emperor who conquered much of Europe in the early 19th century. Born on the island of Corsica, Napoleon rapidly rose through the ranks of the military during the FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799). In November 1799, in an event known as the COUP OF 18 BRUMAIRE, Napoleon was part of a group that successfully OVERTHREW THE FRENCH DIRECTORY. The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and 5'7" Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. He centralized the government; instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education; supported science and the arts; and sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution. One of his most significant accomplishments was the NAPOLEONIC CODE, which streamlined the French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day. In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first CONSUL FOR LIFE. Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. On April 6, 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne. With the TREATY OF FONTAINEBLEAU, he was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria. On February 26, 1815, after less than a year in exile, Napoleon escaped Elba and sailed to the French mainland with a group of more than 1,000 supporters. On March 20, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds. The new king, Louis XVIII (1755-1824), fled, and Napoleon began what came to be known as his HUNDRED DAYS CAMPAIGN. In June 1815, at the BATTLE OF WATERLOO near Brussels, the French were crushed by the British, with assistance from the Prussians. On June 22, 1815, Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate. In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to the remote, British-held island of Saint Helena. He died there on May 5, 1821, at age 51.

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Battle in which in which Napoleon's army defeated the Austrians and Russians. The victory resulted in the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the creation of the CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.

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On April 6, 1814, Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne. He was exiled to Elba, a Mediterranean island off the coast of Italy. He was given sovereignty over the small island, while his wife and son went to Austria.

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The French army led by Napoleon was crushed by the British, with assistance from the Prussians. On June 22, 1815, Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate. In October 1815, Napoleon was exiled to the remote, British-held island of Saint Helena.

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In the War of 1812, the United States took on the greatest naval power in the world, Great Britain, in a conflict that would have an immense impact on the young country’s future. Causes of the war included British attempts to restrict U.S. trade, the Royal Navy’s impressment of American seamen and America’s desire to expand its territory. The United States suffered many costly defeats at the hands of British, Canadian and Native American troops over the course of the War of 1812, including the capture and burning of the nation’s capital, Washington, D.C., in August 1814. Nonetheless, American troops were able to repulse British invasions in New York, Baltimore and New Orleans, boosting national confidence and fostering a new spirit of patriotism. The ratification of the Treaty of Ghent on February 17, 1815, ended the war but left many of the most contentious questions unresolved. Nonetheless, many in the United States celebrated the War of 1812 as a “second war of independence,” beginning an era of partisan agreement and national pride.

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required neutral countries to obtain a license from its authorities before trading with France or French colonies.

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British policy removing seamen from U.S. merchant vessels and forcing them to serve on behalf of the British in the Napoleonic Wars

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In the 18th century, Saint Dominigue, as Haiti was then known, became France’s wealthiest overseas colony, largely because of its production of sugar, coffee, indigo, and cotton generated by an enslaved labor force. Haiti had a history of slave rebellions; the slaves were never willing to submit to their status and with their strength in numbers (10 to 1) colonial officials and planters did all that was possible to control them. Inspired by the French Revolution’s “Declaration of the Rights of Man.” Led by former slave TOUSSAINT L’OVERTURE, the former slaves managed to stave off both the French forces and the British who arrived in 1793 to conquer the colony, and who withdrew in 1798 after a series of defeats by l’Overture’s forces. By 1801 l’Overture expanded the revolution beyond Haiti, conquering the neighboring Spanish colony of Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic). He abolished slavery in the Spanish-speaking colony and declared himself Governor-General for life over the entire island of Hispaniola. In response, Napoleon Bonaparte, now the ruler of France, dispatched troops to restore French rule and slavery. JEAN-JACQUES DESSALINES, one of l’Overture’s generals and himself a former slave, led the revolutionaries at the Battle of Vertieres on November 18, 1803 where the French forces were defeated. On January 1, 1804, Dessalines declared the nation independent and renamed it HAITI. France became the first nation to recognize its independence. Haiti thus emerged as the first black republic in the world, and the second nation in the western hemisphere (after the United States) to win its independence from a European power.

Answer 119

After Napoleon’s defeat, the Russian Empire became one of the dominant powers of Europe, and Alexander played a leading role in the redrawing of Europe at the CONGRESS OF VIENNA IN 1815. This agreement among the major European powers granted Poland and Finland to the Russian Empire, as it continued to expand into the Caucasus, Turkey, and Alaska. Alexander’s unexpected death in December 1825 led to a dynastic crisis, which provided an opportunity for a cadre of revolutionists to seize power with the goal to transform the Empire into a constitutional state. On December 26, 1825, THE DECEMBRISTS, as they were called, staged a rebellion that the government easily defeated. Although the Decembrists failed, they became an inspiration to subsequent revolutionaries. As the new emperor, NICHOLAS I drove dissent underground with his secret police, censorship of the press, and new educational program of Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality. The Russian Empire had waged a series of successful wars against the Ottoman Empire in 1828 and 1829 and declared war again in 1853. Great Britain and France joined the Ottomans in their defense and landed at Crimea to lay siege to the Russian base at Sevastopol. The fall of the Russian base the following year exposed the Russian Empire’s weakness. As the Russian Empire attempted to modernize its economy, it continued to expand its territory into the Caucasus and Central Asia regions. The Empire also expanded into China, which led to construction of the TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY, and defeated the Ottoman Empire to have influence in the Balkans (1875-77). The controversy over whether Russia or Japan would occupy Manchuria led to the RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR (1904-05), with Japan defeating the Russian Empire – the first time an Asian country defeated a European one. Confronted with unrest and revolution at home, Nicholas II accepted U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt’s mediation and agreed to acknowledge Japan’s supremacy in Manchuria and Korea. The defeat by the Japanese further exposed the weakness of the Russian Empire and contributed to the 1905 REVOLUTION. The event that triggered the 1905 Revolution was the government’s violent suppression of a mass procession of workers. Known as BLOODY SUNDAY (January 22, 1905), this event brought to the surface the social and economic discontent of the Russian people. Nation-wide strikes, assassination of government officials, and military mutinies quickly followed. Nicholas II agreed to the OCTOBER MANIFESTO, a document which promised a constitutional monarchy with basic civil liberties and an elected legislature. In spite of his agreement to these conditions, Nicholas II nonetheless was able to dominate the government because the political reformers were unable to unite, dividing themselves between the OCTOBRISTS (moderate-conservatives) and KADETS (moderate-liberals). After the 1905 Revolution, the Russian Empire entangled itself in a series of ever-changing alliances in Europe, eventually entering the TRIPLE ENTENTE of Great Britain and France against Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. THE BALKAN WARS in 1912 and 1913 drew the Russian Empire into these conflicts with its support of its fellow Slavs in Serbia. The system of alliances, along with poor decisions by European leaders, led to World War I (1914-18). The Russian offensive into East Prussia and Austria-Hungary was to divert German troops from its western front against the British and French. Although successful, the Russian military suffered disastrous defeats in 1914-15, exposing the ineptness and incompetence of the government and created social and economic hardships at home. The strain of the war created popular unrest resulting in nationwide strikes in 1916. Regardless of Nicholas II’s insistence, demonstrators in the capital called for an end to autocracy in March 1917. When the Cossack troops refused to fire onto the crowds and instead handed over their guns, Nicholas II abdicated on March 15, thereby ending the Russian Empire. Seven months later the BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION began.

Answer 120

End of Japanese Feudalism In the nineteenth century, Japan experienced a dramatic shift from the conservative, isolationist policies of the shōgun-dominated Edo period to the drive to modernize and engage with the rest of the world that characterized the MEIJI RESTORATION. In the name of Emperor Meiji, social, political, and economic changes were legislated through a series of edicts. Japan also opened its borders, sending several high-ranking expeditions abroad and inviting foreign advisors—including educators, engineers, architects, painters, and scientists—to assist the Japanese in rapidly absorbing modern technology and Western knowledge. Throughout the century, however, the drive to Westernize was paralleled by continued isolationist tendencies and a desire to resist foreign influences. Eventually, as has happened numerous times in the nation’s history, after the Japanese assimilated what had been borrowed, they used these imports to formulate a new but distinctly Japanese modern society.

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In the late Ming Dynasty, the Manchus in Northeast China grew in strength. The Manchus attacked China for three generations in succession, and finally founded the Qing Dynasty. It was the last imperial dynasty in China’s history. The two most famous emperors of the Qing Dynasty were Emperor Kangxi and Emperor Qianlong. Their reigns were "a golden age of prosperity". During this Dynasty, China was reduced to a semi-colonial, semi-imperial country after the First Opium War, which began in 1839. Modern China's territory was established during this era.

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Tensions had been brewing throughout Europe for years before World War I actually broke out. A number of ALLIANCES involving European powers, the Ottoman Empire, Russia and other parties had existed for years, but political instability in the Balkans threatened to destroy these agreements. The rise of NATIONALISM and SOCIAL DARWINISM contributed to the mentality of not only political leaders, but citizens as well. The rise of Germany’s military and aggressive foreign policy was also cause for concern. Germany’s “TRIPITZ PLAN” of 1911 was to build the second largest navy thereby advancing itself as a major world power. The spark that ignited World War I was struck in Sarajevo, Bosnia, where Archduke FRANZ FERDINAND—heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire—was shot to death along with his wife, Sophie, by the Serbian nationalist GAVRILO PRINCIP on June 28, 1914. Princip and other nationalists were struggling to end Austro-Hungarian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Because Russia supported Serbia, Austria-Hungary waited to declare war until its leaders received assurance from German leader KAISER WILHELM II that Germany would support their cause. Austro-Hungarian leaders feared that a Russian intervention would involve Russia’s ally, France, and possibly Great Britain as well. On July 5, Kaiser Wilhelm secretly pledged his support, giving Austria-Hungary a so-called CARTE BLANCHE, or “blank check” assurance of Germany’s backing in the case of war. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary then sent an ultimatum to Serbia, with such harsh terms as to make it almost impossible to accept. Convinced that Austria-Hungary was readying for war, the Serbian government ordered the Serbian army to mobilize and appealed to Russia for assistance. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers quickly collapsed. Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia had lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and World War I had begun.

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WWI: England, France, & Russia

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WWI: Austria Hungary, Germany, Italy (Ottoman Empire)

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Germany began fighting World War I on two fronts, invading France through neutral Belgium in the west and confronting Russia in the east.

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In May 1915, Germany used a U-boat to sink the British ocean liner LUSITANIA—traveling from New York to Liverpool with hundreds of American passengers onboard. This helped turn the tide of American public opinion against Germany. In February 1917, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war. Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships the following month. The United States also intercepted the famous Zimmerman Telegram.

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Germany attempted to form an alliance with Mexico, offering to partition the U.S. between the two of them. This led to Woodrow Wilson appearing before Congress to call for a declaration of war against Germany.

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U-Boats Trenches Airplanes Machine Guns

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``` U-Boats Trenches Airplanes Machine Guns Tanks (introduced but made wide-scale in WWII) Radios ```

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Allied leaders stated their desire to build a post-war world that would safeguard itself against future conflicts of such devastating scale. The TREATY OF VERSAILLES, saddled with war guilt, heavy reparations and denied entrance into the LEAGUE OF NATIONS, Germany felt tricked into signing the treaty, having believed any peace would be a “peace without victory,” as put forward by President Wilson in his famous FOURTEEN POINTS SPEECH of January 1918. As the years passed, hatred of the Versailles treaty and its authors settled into a smoldering resentment in Germany that would, two decades later, be counted among the causes of World War II.

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signed in 1925, restricted the use of chemical and biological agents in warfare

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In 1917, two revolutions swept through Russia, ending centuries of imperial rule and setting into motion political and social changes that would lead to the formation of the Soviet Union. Russia industrialized much later than Western Europe and the United States. When it finally did, it brought with it immense social and political changes. A population boom at the end of the 19th century, a harsh growing season due to Russia’s northern climate, and a series of costly wars—starting with the CRIMEAN WAR (1854-1856)—meant frequent food shortages across the vast empire. Large protests by Russian workers against the monarchy led to the BLOODY SUNDAY massacre of 1905. Hundreds of unarmed protesters were killed or wounded by the czar’s troops. The massacre sparked THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905, during which angry workers responded with a series of crippling strikes throughout the country. Czar Nicholas left the Russian capital of Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in 1915 to take command of the Russian Army as Russia entered World War I. In her husband’s absence, CZARINA ALEXANDRA began firing elected officials. During this time, her controversial advisor, GRIGORY RASPUTIN, increased his influence over Russian politics and the royal Romanov family. Russian nobles eager to end Rasputin’s influence murdered him on December 30, 1916. By then, most Russians had lost faith in the failed leadership of the czar. Government corruption was rampant, the Russian economy struggled, and Nicholas repeatedly dissolved the Duma when it opposed his will. Russian citizens and politicians alike called for an overthrow of the czar. After a series of riots, The Duma formed a provisional government in March 1917. A few days later, CZAR NICHOLAS ABDICATED THE THRONE, ending centuries of Russian Romanov rule. On November 6 and 7, 1917 (THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION), leftist revolutionaries led by BOLSHEVIK PARTY LEADER VLADIMIR LENIN launched a nearly bloodless COUP D’ÉTAT against the Duma’s provisional government. The provisional government had been assembled by a group of leaders from Russia’s bourgeois capitalist class. Lenin instead called for a Soviet government that would be ruled directly by councils of soldiers, peasants and workers. The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied government buildings and other strategic locations in Petrograd, and soon formed a new government. Lenin became the dictator of the world’s first COMMUNIST STATE. CIVIL WAR broke out in Russia in late 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution. The warring factions included the Red and White Armies. THE RED ARMY fought for the Lenin’s Bolshevik government. THE WHITE ARMY represented a large group of loosely allied forces, including monarchists, capitalists and supporters of democratic socialism. On July 16, 1918, the ROMANOVS WERE EXECUTED by the Bolsheviks. The Russian Civil War ended in 1923 with Lenin’s Red Army claiming victory and establishing the SOVIET UNION.

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leftist revolutionaries led by BOLSHEVIK PARTY LEADER VLADIMIR LENIN launched a nearly bloodless COUP D’ÉTAT against the Duma’s provisional government.

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fought for the Lenin’s Bolshevik government. Communists

Answer 135

represented a large group of loosely allied forces, including monarchists, capitalists and supporters of democratic socialism. Democrats

Answer 136

In 1931, SPANISH KING ALFONSO XIII authorized elections to decide the government of Spain, and voters overwhelmingly chose to ABOLISH THE MONARCHY in favor of a liberal republic. Alfonso went into exile, and the SECOND REPUBLIC was proclaimed. During the first two years of the Republic, organized labor and leftist radicals forced widespread liberal reforms. The landed aristocracy, the church and a large military clique opposed the Republic, and in November 1933 conservative forces regained control of the government in elections. In response, socialists and nationalists launched a revolution. General Franco crushed the so-called OCTOBER REVOLUTION on behalf of the conservative government, and in 1935 he was appointed army chief of staff. On July 18, 1936, the Spanish Civil War began as a revolt by right-wing Spanish military officers in Spanish Morocco and spread to mainland Spain. From the Canary Islands, GENERAL FRANCISCO FRANCO broadcast a message calling for all army officers to join the uprising and OVERTHROW SPAIN’S LEFTIST REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT. Within three days, the rebels captured Morocco, much of northern Spain, and several key cities in the south. The Republicans succeeded in putting down the uprising in other areas, including Madrid, Spain’s capital. THE REPUBLICANS and the NATIONALISTS, as the rebels were called, then proceeded to secure their respective territories by executing thousands of political opponents. During the next few months Nationalist forces rapidly overran much of the Republican-controlled areas in central and northern Spain. In 1937 Franco unified the Nationalist forces under the command of THE FALANGE, Spain’s fascist party, while the Republicans fell under the sway of the communists. Germany and Italy aided Franco with an abundance of planes, tanks, and arms, while the Soviet Union aided the Republican side. In addition, thousands of communists and other radicals from France, the USSR, America, and elsewhere formed the International Brigades to aid the Republican cause. In June 1938, Franco captured key territory in Catalonia. With the Republican cause all but lost, its leaders attempted to negotiate a peace, but Franco refused. On March 28, 1939, the Republicans finally surrendered Madrid, bringing the Spanish Civil War to an end.

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The conflict between PALESTINIAN ARABS and ZIONIST JEWS (now Israeli Jews) dates back to the end of the nineteenth century. The conflict began as a STRUGGLE OVER LAND. From the end of World War I until 1948, the area that both groups claimed was known internationally as PALESTINE. That same name was also used to designate a less well-defined “HOLY LAND” by the three monotheistic religions. Following the war of 1948–1949, this land was divided into three parts: THE STATE OF ISRAEL, THE WEST BANK (of the Jordan River) and THE GAZA STRIP. Jewish claims to this land are based on the biblical promise to Abraham and his descendants, on the fact that the land was the historical site of the ancient Jewish kingdoms of Israel and Judea, and on Jews’ need for a haven from European anti-Semitism. Palestinian Arab claims to the land are based on their continuous residence in the country for hundreds of years and the fact that they represented the demographic majority until 1948. They reject the notion that a biblical-era kingdom constitutes the basis for a valid modern claim. Following World War II, Britain decided to relinquish its mandate over Palestine and requested that the recently established United Nations determine the future of the country. On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly voted to partition Palestine into two states, one Jewish and the other Arab. THE UN PARTITION PLAN divided the country so that each state would have a majority of its own population, The Arab military forces were poorly organized, trained and armed. In contrast, Zionist military forces, although numerically smaller, were well organized, trained and armed. By early April 1948, the Zionist forces had secured control over most of the territory allotted to the Jewish state in the UN plan and begun to go on the offensive, conquering territory beyond the partition borders, in several sectors. On May 14, 1948, the British evacuated Palestine, and Zionist leaders proclaimed THE STATE OF ISRAEL. Neighboring Arab states (Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq) then invaded Israel, claiming that they sought to “save” Palestine from the Zionists. In 1949, the war between Israel and the Arab states ended with the signing of armistice agreements. The country once known as Palestine was now divided into three parts, each under a different political regime. The boundaries between them were the 1949 armistice lines (the “Green Line”).

Answer 138

After the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911 two major parties formed: THE NATIONALIST KUOMINTANG PARTY and THE COMMUNIST PARTY. Military revolts by reform-minded officers lead to the proclamation of REPUBLIC OF CHINA under Sun Yat-sen. The Republic was hardly successful as it struggled to consolidate its rule amid regional warlordism and the rise of the Communist Party. Chinese Communists joined with the Nationalist Army in the NORTHERN EXPEDITION of 1926–27 to rid the nation of the warlords that prevented the formation of a strong central government. This collaboration lasted until the “WHITE TERROR” of 1927, when the Nationalists turned on the Communists, killing them or purging them from the party. During World War II, popular support for the Communists increased. U.S. officials in China reported a dictatorial suppression of dissent in Nationalist-controlled areas. These undemocratic polices combined with wartime corruption made the Republic of China Government vulnerable to the Communist threat. In 1945, the leaders of the Nationalist and Communist parties, CHIANG KAI-SHEK and MAO ZEDONG, met for a series of talks on the formation of a post-war government. Both agreed on the importance of democracy, a unified military, and equality for all Chinese political parties. The truce was tenuous, however, and, in spite of repeated efforts by U.S. General George Marshall to broker an agreement, by 1946 the two sides were fighting an all-out civil war. Years of mistrust between the two sides thwarted efforts to form a coalition government. As the civil war gained strength from 1947 to 1949, eventual Communist victory seemed more and more likely as they had strong grassroots support, superior military organization and morale, and large stocks of weapons seized from Japanese supplies in Manchuria. Years of corruption and mismanagement had eroded popular support for the Nationalist Government. In the 1960s, Chinese Communist Party leader Mao Zedong launched the so-called CULTURAL REVOLUTION (known in full as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution) in August 1966, at a meeting of the Plenum of the Central Committee. He shut down the nation’s schools, calling for a massive youth mobilization to take current party leaders to task for their embrace of bourgeois values and lack of revolutionary spirit. In the months that followed, the movement escalated quickly as the students formed paramilitary groups called the Red Guards and attacked and harassed members of China’s elderly and intellectual population.

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a five-year plan of forced agricultural collectivization and rural industrialization that was instituted by the Chinese Communist Party in 1958, which resulted in a sharp contraction in the Chinese economy and between 30 to 55 million deaths by starvation, execution, torture, forced labor, and suicide out of desperation. It was the largest single, non-wartime campaign of mass killing in human history. The initiative was led by Mao Zedong, also known as Mao Tse-tung and Chairman Mao. Mao’s official goal was to rapidly evolve China from an agrarian economy into a modern industrial society with greater ability to compete with Western industrialized nations.

Answer 140

India had been under British control since the 18th century, when the East India Company took control of the country. Following the INDIAN MUTINY OF 1857, the British government officially assumed control of the country, instituting a government known as the “RAJ.” Britain gradually ceded control to Indian leaders, passing the GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT in 1935, which allowed for the creation of provincial governments. In 1942, Britain offered India dominion status in exchange for its support in World War II, but Indian leaders turned it down. Instead, Gandhi led the “QUIT INDIA” movement, ordering the British out of the country. The British responded by arresting all the leaders of the movement and over 60,000 other protestors. Following World War II, with India becoming ungovernable, the British decided it was time to grant it independence. On June 15, 1947, the British House of Commons passed the INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT, or MOUNTBATTEN PLAN, which divided India into two dominions, India and Pakistan. It called for each dominion to be granted its independence by Aug. 15 of that year. With the creation of Pakistan there was a massive population exchange between India and Pakistan with Muslims and Hindus moving to their respective state to avoid persecution. These migrations were accompanied by bloodshed.

Answer 141

In 1946, the struggle between Vietnam's French colonial rulers and its Communist-supported nationalist movement finally erupted into all-out war. This war—known as the Indochina War or the First Indochina War (the Vietnam War is sometimes referred to as the Second Indochina War)—lasted for eight long years. The French had colonized the area of Vietnam decades earlier and the Vietnamese people strongly resented the tyrannical rule and political and social implementations of the French. Thus, a guerrilla-type revolutionary organization, THE VIET MINH, formed to drive out the French. They were led by HO CHI MINH, the recently elected leader of the DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM. The First Indochina War was virtually a stalemate between the French and the Viet Minh from 1946 – 1950; then towards the end in 1954, the Viet Minh gained significant advances in driving out the French. In 1949, France set up the State of Vietnam (currently known as South Vietnam) as an “associated statehood” under BAO DAI because he had been cooperative with France in the past. But this government clashed with Ho’s Democratic Republic of Vietnam in its political and social ideals as well as his nationalistic goals. Although the French had superior weapon technology and financial aid from the United States, they were greatly outnumbered by the Viet Minh in manpower. The French also suffered from unfamiliarity with fighting in a jungle environment against a guerrilla soldier waiting in the tall grass. Enemies were hard to identify, for they looked no different than civilians. The Viet Minh easily recruited local fighters, and because of the Vietnamese hatred of the French occupation, the Viet Minh also benefited from the intelligence information the civilians provided them. When the Chinese Communist Party won control of China in 1949, the advanced weapons gap between the two opposing sides slowly closed because China, along with the communist Soviet Union, began to supply the Viet Minh with artillery. At DIEN BIEN PHU, in 1954, the French made their final stand in this long, grueling battle. The siege and battle took a toll on the French military from which they could not recover. In the same year, the GENEVA ACCORDS were signed, and the French left their colonies in Indochina. These accords split Vietnam in half, North and South, but did not end the fighting. South Vietnam now quaked in fear of the communist North overtaking them. The U.S. soon came to the aid of South Vietnam and the War which ensued would greatly stir up American politics and cost a massive amount of American lives.

Answer 142

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself FÜHRER (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called ARYAN, Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary LEBENSRAUM, or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan (THE TRIPARTITE PACT & THE ANTI-COMINTERN PACT) against the Soviet Union, Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year ANNEXED CZECHOSLOVAKIA. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain were eager for confrontation after such great losses in World War I. In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the GERMAN-SOVIET NONAGGRESSION PACT, which guaranteed that Poland would be split between Hitler and Stalin. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II. On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation. On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “BLITZKRIEG,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at the northern end of THE MAGINOT LINE, an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I. The Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from DUNKIRK in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator BENITO MUSSOLINI formed an alliance with Hitler, THE PACT OF STEEL, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10. On June 14, German forces entered Paris; France requested an armistice two days later. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel. To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed OPERATION SEA LION), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941 including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. THE ROYAL AIR FORCE (RAF) eventually defeated the LUFTWAFFE (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain, and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the LEND-LEASE ACT, passed by Congress in early 1941. By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the EXTERMINATION OF THE JEWS from throughout German-occupied Europe. Known as THE HOLOCAUST, more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland. On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed OPERATION BARBAROSSA. Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather. With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at PEARL HARBOR in Hawaii, taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States. After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “ISLAND-HOPPING” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan. In North Africa, British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943. On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody BATTLE OF STALINGRAD, which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943. On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-DAY”–the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the BEACHES OF NORMANDY, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the BATTLE OF THE BULGE, the last major German offensive of the war. By the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Allied forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker. At the POTSDAM CONFERENCE of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman, Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be DIVIDED INTO FOUR OCCUPATION ZONES, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan. Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at IWO JIMA and OKINAWA and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top-secret operation code-named THE MANHATTAN PROJECT, the ATOMIC BOMB was unleashed on the Japanese cities of HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

Answer 143

After World War II the Allies temporarily divided Korea along the 38TH PARALLEL between north and south. NORTH KOREA soon became a COMMUNIST STATE under the influence of the SOVIET UNION. SOUTH KOREA declared themselves a REPUBLIC in 1948 and became allies of THE UNITED STATES. After two years of military confrontation along the border, North Korean troops suddenly attacked the south in June 1950. Almost defeated, the South Korean government called upon the United Nations to help. Many countries, led by the United States, sent troops. The Allied armies drove the North Koreans back but fearing an attack upon themselves, THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA sent huge numbers of troops to aid North Korea. By early 1951 the war was stalemated along the old border. Armistice negotiations began but took two years to complete. In the meantime, battles raged and many lives were lost. Fifty thousand Americans died in the war, as did millions of Koreans on both sides.

Answer 144

Japanese army detonating a railway explosion and blaming it on Chinese bandits. They then used the event as an excuse to take over Manchuria in northeastern China.

Answer 145

Pact between Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Japan. They agreed to assist one another should any of them be attacked by a country not already involved in the war.

Answer 146

In response to a U.S. embargo on oil and steel, On December 7, 1941, Japanese planes bombed the U.S. naval base at PEARL HARBOR in Hawaii. The United States declared war one day later.

Answer 147

Soviets v. USA ``` Space Race Sputnik Arms Race Cuban Missile Crisis Berlin Wall COMMUNISM v. CAPITALISM ```

Answer 148

victorious Allies negotiated the joint occupation of Germany

Answer 149

pledged aid to governments threatened by communist subversion.

Answer 150

provided billions of dollars in economic assistance to eliminate the political instability that could open the way for communist takeovers

Answer 151

All of the New Kingdom rulers were laid to rest here - a burial site on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes