World Cities Flashcards
Million(aire) city
Urban area with over 1 million living there.
Mega city
Urban area with over 10 million living there.
World city
A city that has an influence on the whole world.
Centres of trade and business.
Cultural and science hubs.
Urbanisation
Growth in proportion of a country’s population that lives in urban areas.
Dharavi, Mumbai
Delhi, India
Suburbanisation
Movement of people from the city centre to the outskirts/suburbs.
E.g. LA
Counter-urbanisation
Movement of people from cities to rural areas.
East Keswick
Re-urbanisation
Movement of people back to the city centre.
Main causes of urbanisation
Rural-urban migration
Natural increase
Why does rural-urban migration occur
Push and pull factors
Push factors
Conflict/war Natural disasters Mechanisation Desertification Changes in land use
Pull factors
More jobs and better paid
Health and education services
Perceived better quality of life
Landscape
Rapid urbanisation in Mumbai
Impacts
Slums - poor living conditions Poor health care Inconsistent supply of water Traffic congestion and air pollution More waste produced as larger population
Rapid urbanisation in Mumbai
Management/solutions
Redevelopment project in Dharavi:
New housing, better water and sewage system, better healthcare, recycling
Better public transport - metro system
Decentralisation
Moving from the centre to the outskirts of town
Reasons for the growth of out-of-town retailing
Increased car ownership
High parking prices in centre
Cheaper to build out of town, more space
Negative impacts of Decentralisation on city centres
Fewer people shop in centre - close - lose jobs.
Services decline as less people in centre.
Decline in business and retail can lad to general decline in whole area, investment decreases, more vandalism.
Positive impacts of Decentralisation on city centres
Local council invest money to improve centre e.g. Pedestrian zones, renovate buildings, organise events.
Congestion and pollution decrease.
Negative impacts of Decentralisation on rural-urban fringe (where out of town retailing is located)
Lots of construction- pollution, congestion.
Positive impacts of Decentralisation on rural-urban fringe (where out of town retailing is located)
Creates jobs
Built on brownfield sites that are often left empty.
Houses with easy access may increase in value.
Trafford Centre
Large Out of town Retail Park
Over 200 shops 20 screen cinema Accessible-M60 and M602 12000 parking spaces + traffic control system Indoors, air conditioned Long opening hours
Declined Central Area - characteristics
Closed/empty shops - unattractive, vandalism.
Higher crime rates - low perception of safety
Investment decreases
Strategies to redevelop central areas
Make more attractive- pedestrian zones, beautification (trees, benches, new paving). New malls/renovate old ones Better public transport CCTV and security - street lighting Increase opening hours Conserve historic buildings
Strategies to redevelop entertainment in central areas
More cafes and bars - brings people=reduce crime
Promote cultural entertainment
More residential properties
Leeds central area
Reasons for decline
- competition from White Rose, Meadowhall
- changes in shopping habits (bulk buying)
- loss of traditional industry
Leeds central area
Strategies to revitalise
- All weather shopping: >120 shops.
- Beautification: hanging baskets, Briggate
- Crime prevention: CCTV, security guards
- Car and cycle parking with 630 spaces
- Litter prevention: bins, new paving, furniture
- High order shops: M&S, Harvey Nichols, John Lewis
- Future development: Victoria Quarter
Leeds central area
Evaluation
+ development of brownfield sites
+ increased residential population
+ improved physical appearance
- 31 stores closed in first 6 months of Trinity opening
- retailers moving: vacant buildings: vandalism
Pedestrianised areas: Briggate
Case study for Out of Town Retail Park affecting the centre
Merry Hill (retail park), in solihull Touchwood is the centre affected
Impacts of suburbanisation on city centre
- more abandoned buildings (derelict)
- businesses leave-unemployment-poverty
- wealthier middle class leave and poor (immigrants) = economic and ethnic segregation.
- commute to work-pollution and congestion
Impacts of suburbanisation on suburbs
- new housing-wildlife habits
- urban areas-more concrete-inc surface runoff-inc risk of flooding
- inc car ownership in suburbs-inc air pollution and congestion
Urbanisation- Brown Agenda
A mix of social and environmental problems brought about by rapid growth and industrialisation associated with economic development. Occurs in the LEDW.
Brown Agenda Elements
- Traditional issues- limited availability of good quality land, shelter and services e.g. clean water.
- Problems from rapid industrialisation e.g. hazardous waste, water, air, noise pollution and industrial accidents owing to poor standard owing to poor standards of health and saftey.
Characteristics of suburbanisation
- ribbon development
- rural urban fringe e.g. woodlands, parks, cemeteries, golf courses
- well established housing areas that are highly sought put for in property market
Suburbanisation causes
- growth of public transport, railway, arterial roads, inc use of private cars
- few planning controls
- building of council (social) housing
- home ownership in 70s led to private housing estates built on urban fringe
- inc car ownership
Suburbanisation effects
- outward growth of urban development that has engulfed surrounding villages and rural areas.
- urban sprawl
- green belts established
- shopping, office parks built on outskirts (green belt ignored) due to the inc car ownership
Brownfield sites
- Derelict in urban areas
- Land costly to reclaim if polluted by industrial use.
- Higher density housing to reflect cost of land (less demand in unfashionable areas)
- Infrastructure present
- Small patches of land
- Environment improved
Greenfield sites
- New sites on agricultural land
- Land not available unless planning permission approved (more costly)
- Low density housing-great demand as fashionable areas
- Infrastructure costs high for new sewage, water, gas, electricity, schools and health facilities
- Larger sites
- Environment changes from rural to urban use
Counter urbanisation causes
- escape air pollution, dirt, crime
- car ownership, greater affluence
- many employers moved out of cities
- improvements in technology (work from home)
- inc demand for second homes
- rural areas need money -farmers sell old buildings
Counter urbanisation: Rural Turnaround
Social and demographic change in rural areas.
Main changes:
- Outmigration of young
- Decline of elderly village-born pop
- In-migration of young to middle-aged married couples or families with children
- In-migration of younger more affluent people = inc house prices
Counter urbanisation:
Rural turnaround effects
Community:
- tension between newcomers and locals
- local services close (bus service, schools)
- newcomers have wealth a d mobility to use urban services
Layout of rural settlements:
- modern housing built on edges of small settlements
- former green areas built on
- agricultural buildings converted
- small industrial estates built on main roads leading into settlement
Gentrification
Process by which individuals move into an area of older housing that was in a state of disrepair and improvement of that housing.
Physical environment improves and social composition changes, making area desirable again.
Not carried out by local authorities/council.
Notting Hill, London
Reurbanisation causes
Gentrification
Property-led regeneration schemes
Sustainable communities
Reurbanisation:
Property-led regeneration schemes
Urban development corporations take responsibility for physical, economic and social regeneration of selected inner city areas that had large amounts of derelict and vacant land.
Planning powers over local authority, encouraged to spend public money on purchase of land, building of infrastructure and on marketing to private investment.
Criticisms:
- too dependent on property speculation (lost money)
- democratic accountability removed
Reurbanisation:
Sustainable communities
Aims:
- Decent homes for sale at affordable prices
- Safeguard green space that are well designed
- Effectively governed with a strong sense of community.
The Burgess Model
Circles working outwards:
Central areas (M+S, small supermarkets, chain stores)
Inner city (corner shops)
Suburbs (shopping parade)
Rural urban fringe with sub-urbanised villages and out of town shopping areas
3 waves of decentralisation
- Supermarkets, superstores in residential areas (Morrisons, York).
- Electrical goods, DIY retail parks expanded on edge of towns (Clifton Moor, York).
- High order, comparison goods in large, out of town centres on edges of towns/near motorway junctions (Trafford Centre).
Changes in retailing
- e-commerce
- farmers markets (local food sourcing)
- small food outlets in central area (tesco metro)
- petrol stations now have food retail function
Out of town retailing centres characteristics
Large sites Large car parks Other entertainment facilities Links to motorway/ring road Access to other transport (bus)
Causes of growth of out of town retailing
Cheaper land and room for expansion
Increased car ownership/roads
Different shopping habits (monthly), so need access by car
Different expectations (shopping now for leisure)
Core of central area definition
Middle of central area, where high order shops/services are
Frame of central area definition
Outskirts of the core of the central area
Zone of discard
Usually the area in the frame where there is decline
Zone of assimilation
Area where there is growth
Urban decline
The process whereby a city falls into disrepair with depopulation or changing population, economic restructuring, abandoned buildings, high local unemployment, fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime and a desolate, inhospitable city landscape.
Social segregation
Rich and poor concentrated in different areas.
Multiple deprivation
Combination of social, environmental and economical deprivation.
Urban social exclusion
Problems faced by residents in areas of multiple deprivation.
Excluded from full participation in society.
(Poor education = no decent job/ poverty = no decent housing/ poor health/ high crime/ unattractive physical environment)
Deindustrialisation
Reduction of industrial activity or capacity in a region/economy.
Loss of jobs in manufacturing sector.
Reasons for social segregation
- Housing
- Changing environment (gentrification, big houses into flats)
- The ethnic dimension (migrants in poor areas, suffer discrimination in jobs - low pay - poor housing/ ethnic groupings + persist into next generation)
Measuring deprivation
Social Factors
Incidence of crime Fear of crime Standards/access to health Standards of education % on state benefits
Measuring deprivation
Economic factors
Level of income
Access to employment
Access to leisure services, open spaces
% of lone parent families
Measuring deprivation
Environment factors
Quality of housing Level of pollution Graffiti Vandalism Incidence of litter
Measuring deprivation
Political Factors
Opportunities to participate in community life and influence decisions
Inner city decline
Characteristics
- High population out migration figures
- Many boarded up shops
- Many empty/derelict properties
- Schools closing - esp primary- low levels education
- High unemployment
- High crime, graffiti, vandalism
- Low level participation in local democracy
Inner city decline
Causes
- Economic decline- deindustrialisation, technology, globalisation of production
- Population loss and social decline - out-migration of skilled leaves poor, old, less skilled
- Poor physical environment - poor housing, no parks, graffiti, wasteland, empty derelict properties, concrete jungle
- Political problems - inner cities= lowest turnout in elections (reflect feeling of rejection), urban regen policies done little= poverty
Inner city high rise developments
Problems
Lacked community feel Poorly ventilated- damp Open spaces unowned- vandalised Poor design- hidden spaces crime and hooliganism Expensive to heat
Peripheral council estates
Reasons for decline
- fabric- environmental quality deteriorated
- high maintenance costs
- rented by above average proportions of vulnerable groups (unemployed, elderly in poverty, low income households)
Urban development corporation case study
London Docklands
City Challenge Partnerships case study
Hulme Manchester
Partnership between local and national governments and the private sector
21st century sustainable communities
Greenwich Millennium Village, London
Partnership
