Works of Scholars Flashcards
Why are some people non-believers?
there is no such being to whom the description ‘God’ can be given
all so called experiences of God can be explained in other ways
evil and suffering count decisively against the existence of God
Believers are deluded
their distrust of organised religion may lead to rejection of belief of God
they may hate religious beliefs and believers
they may think hat belief in God serves only to support those who are emotionally, intellectually or psychologically weak
loss of faith, unanswered prayers and bad experiences of religion
Atheism (includes weak+strong)
Atheism: literally means ‘without/no God’
Weak atheism: Simple scepticism, the absence in belief in the existence of God
Strong atheism: An explicitly-held belief that God does not exist. Strong atheism is often expressed as antitheism. An antitheist offers strong arguments against the religious belief of others , considering them wrong or dangerous, rather than simply choosing not to believe for themselves.
Agnosticism
The belief that is not possible to know where God exists, or to know his nature. The term was coined in the 19th century by Thomas Huxley, as the opposite of gnostic, the Greek term used in the early church to describe those who professed to have special revelatory knowledge of the divine.
Francis Collins
“of all choices, atheism requires the greatest faith, as it demands that one’s limited store of human knowledge is sufficient to exclude the possibility of God”
Dawkin’s belief scale scoring Rubric
- Strong Theist: I do not question the existence of God, I know he exists
- De-facto Theist: I cannot know for certain but I strongly believe in God and Ilive my life on the assumption he is there
- Weak Theist: I am very uncertain but I am inclined to believe in God
- Pure Agnostic: God’s existence and non-existence are exactly possible
- Weak Atheist: I do not kow whether God exists but I’m inclined to be skeptical
- De-facto Atheist: I cannot know for certain but I think God is very improbable and I live my life under the assumptiopn that he is not there
- Strong Atheism: I am 100% sure that there is no God
The Burden of Proof
Atheists argue that the burden of proof lies with the theist and it is their responsibility to evidence God’s existence. There is a lack of evidence supporting God’s existence and plenty against it.
Theists may argue that the onus is on atheists to prove God’s non-existence.
Positions on the existence of any thing (X)
-If X cannot be proved to exist, then X doesn’t exist.
a strong empirical position which rejects all that cannot be proven
-If X cannot be proved to exist then X cannot be proved not to exist
accepts both positions as equally unsound
-If X cannot be proved not to exist then X must exist
if arguments against existence fail then by default X must exist
-If X cannot be proved not to exist, then X may exist
failure to disprove the existence of God does not render his existence necessary, but it is probable
Thomas Huxley
Coined the term agnosticism. Gnostic in Greek was used in the early church to describe those who had had special revelatory knowledge of the divine.
An agnostic is open to the possibility of knowledge leading to belief but may not know what it would take for them to believe.
Some have called it another form of atheism
David Hume and positive knowledge
Brought into question the status and character of positive knowledge.
-only knowledge of observable sequences and connections could constitute positive knowledge.
-began a disassociation between science and metaphysics
It became clear that science could only deal with what was testable. Metaphysical questions were now apparently not a part of science.
The onus was now on believers to justify their beliefs, as they could not support them with observable evidence.
Critiques of Religious belief
critics tend to conclude that the role of religious belief in society creates social and hierarchical structures which have a powerful effect on the lives of individuals and communities God is the name given to something else, such as ‘society’. religious beliefs are seen as maintaining a social structure of benefit to some but not others and preventing the individual from realising their full potential. indeed, some say that beliefs deceive
Alternative explanations for religion
functionally: the function it serves within society
projectively: the ways in which humans project their fears, anxieties and subconscious feelings
social: religion maintains social structure to benefit some and prevent others from realising their full potential
Humanism
recognises the individual moral capability of humans without the guidance of a divine being or other authority. Humanism is not necessarily anti-religious, but in focusing on the significance of human beings, could be seen to reject any notion regarding a being greater than us. Humanists would be de-facto atheists.
Materialism
all is material, there is no soul. There is no God and so this would be a strong atheist standpoint.
Ludwig Feuerbach
influential atheist thinker who argued that religion was essentially created by humanity. In ‘The essence of Christianity’ 1841, he argued that when people worship Go, they are in fact worshipping their own human nature. There is no objective God existing outside human nature. Humanity created God in its image.
Emile Durkheim’s definition of religion (quote)
“A unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things…which unite onto one single moral community called a church, all who adhere to them”
Emile Durkheim on the function of religion
• creates a sense of moral obligation within individuals to conform to society and adhere to its demands
• he likened society to a primitive clan which worships a totem, symbolising God and the unity of the clan. in this case, the clan and God are one and in worshipping one, the other is worshipped. unity in the clan is worshipped with God
• religion creates a unified social system and is used to explain otherwise unexplainable phenomena
• man gives society religious significance when he should instead “discover the rational substitutes for these religious notions that for a long time have served as the vehicle for the most essential moral ideas”
Criticisms of Durkheim’s view
• religious believers distinguish between membership of their religious community and belief in God. The primary loyalty is to that in which they believe, not the religion.
• does not explain how or why people break societal conventions to follow or as a part of their religion+
• his thesis was modelled on primitive aboriginal societies and is therefore not a true reflection of modern religions which are more sophisticated and distinctive
• society changes while beliefs of God remain steadfast
Ted Haggard
An example showing the relevance of Durkheim’s views. he was a senior pastor of the New Life Church in Colorado. He was removed from his positions in 2006 after his involvement with prostitution and drugs became known. The Church gave hum no choice but to attend counselling. He was forced to accept the sanctions of the Church which he had founded, showing its control.
Karl Marx
argued religion is used power ruling classes to dominate and oppress the lower classes by offering an illusion of escape- “it eased pain even as it created fantasies”.
Claimed that men created God and that, “religion is the opium of the people”, satisfying perceived needs but having an ultimately detrimental effect.
Criticism of Marx
• in most societies, the separation between church and state is far greater than Marx assumed
• Liberation theology exists in impoverished parts of the world, accepting that the suffering caused by poverty is wrong and contrary to the will of God. Gutierrez: “We are on the side of the poor, not because they are good, but because they are poor”
• Religion is open to interpretation and therefore to change
• the biblical God transforms situation and lifts up the oppressed
• Weber suggested that religion promoted social change and that capitalism had developed from the Protestant ethic of self denial and work
• Engels: early church challenged the Roman authority
• the capitalist system does not preserve religion as it is not dominated by one single institution
Freud
We project our troubles through our religious beliefs, a ‘universal neurosis’.
The deity takes the place of the father figure whose morals are internalised to become the superego (our own set of morals). The superego makes us feel guilt.
Monotheistic religions are mostly law based, the demands of the superego become these laws.
Freud likened religious rituals to obsessive compulsions.
Criticism of Freud’s view
-attributed all religious behaviour to relationship with father while Nelson and Jones 1957 found that the concept of God correlated more with the relationship with the mother
-Kate Lowenthal distinguished between projective religion, which is immature, and intrinsic religion, which is serious and reflective. Freud assumed that all come under the former, ignoring diversity and development of religious belief
-Arthur Guirdham argued Freud’s anti religious stance may be thought to be just as neurotic as the religious preoccupation of others
-Peter Moore: “his need to explain everything (art, religion, ethics, society) by sex tells us more about his obsessional neuroses than ours”
-his research was not objective, just theories
Carl Jung
disagreed with Freud on the relative importance of sexuality and spirituality to a person’s psychological development.
Personal unconscious: includes repressed memories, unique to individuals
Collective unconscious: events we all share as we share our humanity
had a broad understanding of what can be empirical. even if one individual heard a voice, he would call it empirical. most contemporary scientists reject his views because of this and because of this less research has been done into his view on religion than Freud’s.
Argued religion is essential for a balanced psyche
Criticism of Carl Jung
Broad views, not empirical, no strict methods of collecting data
