Works

Question 1

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

Answer 1

508 BCE (dedicated), Capitoline Hill, Rome. Foundations, 1st half of the 6th BCE. The Capitolium. Three cellas to display cult statues of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva (Cap triad). Etruscan, with three rows of columns in front on high podium; 1 row columns on sides, none on back. Mud brick with wood columns. The most important temple.

Question 2

Statue of the Capitoline She-Wolf

Answer 2

1st quarter of 5th? Carolingian? Bronze. Probably one of first artistic commissions of new Roman state. Difficult as brings up questions - what is Roman about it in terms of style? Seems that they didn’t care about creating a national artistic character.

Question 3

So-called “Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus”

Answer 3

Early 1st BCE, marble. Also Paris/Munich reliefs. Campus Martius, Rome. Panels: wedding of Poseidon and Amphitrite; census scene. Two different styles on same monument. Probably decorated statue base. Poseidon part has animated movements, diaphanous garments, foreshortened figures; probably originally from Greek temple. Language of allegory; mythology. Census part has static figures acting out a ritual - probably to make it seen that everything was done correctly as Romans believed their relationship with gods rested in correct ritual. Ritual = contract. May have celebrated censor/naval guy. Important because they did not view adopting outside elements as bad - part of being Roman was conquering Greece and taking.

Question 4

Republican Temples of Largo Argentina

Answer 4

Early 3rd to mid 1st. Campus Martius. Lined up with entrances all facing one way - triumphal procession way. Victorious generals built new temples from spoils, just not too large in order to not give impression to rule. Self-control by leading citizens. Etruscan in a way - podium, front steps. Interaction between past and present generals.

Question 5

Navalia

Answer 5

Second half of 2nd BCE, Rome. Earliest use of concrete on grand scale. Warehouse on Tiber/outskirts. Large: 50 naves, about 200 opus incertum barrel vaults. Potential of concrete: modularity, repeat as many times, reuse moulds and scaffolds. Concrete facilitated expansion.

Question 6

Temple of Portunus

Answer 6

Originally built in 4th-3rd BCE; current form 120 or 75 BCE. Forum Boraium, Rome. Combines Etruscan plan with Ionic columns and frieze (as opposed to Tuscan order). High podium accessible only from front. Engaged half columns at sides and back approximates peripteral temple - pseudoperipteral. Rome’s projection outwards. Entirely of stone.

Question 7

Round Temple on the Tiber, possibly temple of Hercules Olivarius

Answer 7

Late 2nd c. BCE. Forum Boarium, Rome. Greek marble. Rare example of purely Greek temple b/c material and peripteral staircase. However at doorway to cella, extra steps to emphasize front. Appropriation of both form and materials. Possible that patron was a tradesman - innovations connected with those who travel

Question 8

Basilica (Pompeii)

Answer 8

120 BCE. Forum of Pompeii. Oldest well-preserved basilica. Important because do not have Republican basilicas in Rome (were replaced). Central nave surrounded by pilasters, with clerestory and balconies.

Question 9

Sanctuary of Fortuna

Answer 9

End of 2nd BCE. Praeneste. Several terraces connected by ramps leading up hillside up to theater and tholos. Concrete barrel vaults for support. Grand central staircase. Shops on two levels. Financed by local elite - making wealth visible. Shapes without parallels in Rome itself. A sense of empowerment.

Question 10

Theater of Pompey

Answer 10

55 BCE (inaugurated). Campus Martius, Rome. First permanent theater in capital (blocked by conservatives). Richly embellished. Radial concrete barrel vaults holding up cavea. Top of cavea had shrine to Venus. Could just say to critics that he was making a staircase to the temple - religious justification. First with opus reticulatum.

Question 11

**Portrait head of man (“Capitoline Brutus)

Answer 11

Late 4th-early 3rd BCE. Bronze.

Question 12

Portrait of Pompey

Answer 12

Claudian copy of 50 BCE original, marble, Rome. Verism on face with benign expression, however hairstyle borrowed from Alexander. Portraits not objective depictions - highlighted elements in face revealing or asserting personality/characteristics. Maybe associating hair with conquering. Presents himself as one you can trust with face.

Question 13

Portrait of Caesar

Answer 13

Copy of original of early 40s BCE. Marble, Tusculum. Less hair though he was bothered by hair loss. A matter of fact person, not concealing truth or anything. Stress on qualities as pragmatic leader. Goes back to tradition of 3rd century of presenting stern gaze.

Question 14

House of the Faun

Answer 14

Late 2nd c. BCE. Pompeii. Bronze statuette of Satyr, Fish mosaic, mosaic with battle of Alexander and Darius (copy of Hellenistic work). One of best preserved and largest (entire block). Two atria and two peristyles. Greek influence. Axiality - sequence of rooms could perceive from street - suggesting wealth as you could see gigantic. Huge investment on open space - a lifestyle - walking around, thinking, talking, relaxing. All walls in 1st style. Figure styles on mosaics. Alexander mosaic appropriates Greek culture symbolically - west conquering east: Alexander as symbol of Rome. Satyr as embodiment of pleasures of life.

Question 15

Villa of Poppea

Answer 15

1st c. BCE-1st CE. Oplontis (near Pompeii). Triclinium with second style decor.

Question 16

House of Sallust

Answer 16

Late 2nd BCE. Pompeii. Wall with first style decoration. Early Pompeiian house with Republican domus italica plan. Strategic location on first street in city gate so became an inn.

Question 17

Temple of Iuppiter

Answer 17

Late 2nd BCE. Pompeii. Cella with first style decoration.

Question 18

Statue of Aule Metelis (“Arringatore”)

Answer 18

Early 1st BCE, bronze, Pila (near Perugia). One of latest surviving Etruscan works. Romans had hegemony over Etruscans at this time. He wears the garbs of Roman official. Head with signs of age and hairstyle resemble Roman portrait. Etruscans became Roman citizens. Using status signs taken from the real world, as opposed to statues like Pseudo-Athlete.

Question 19

Portrait-statue of an Italic (“Pseudo-Athlete”)

Answer 19

Late 2nd BCE, marble, Delos. Romans thought head alone enough for portrait. Incongruous old head on young body. Greek style. Messages of old wisdom experience, with young hero strong body. Nudity as costume. Unlike Aule Metelis, signs of status taken from the world of art/Greek statues. Value on physical prowess. Statue like this would be unusual for Greek citizen at time

Question 20

Statue of Roman General

Answer 20

2nd quarter of 1st BCE, marble, Tivoli, (Sanctuary of Hercules). Idealized Greek body with veristic head. Cuirass supporting him emblem of rank. Patrician cultural superiority, heroic aura. Lower body covered unlike Pseudo-Athlete. Both elements from reality and imagination together.

Question 21

Portrait of Agrippa

Answer 21

30 BCE. Marble, Forum of Gabii. Bulkier head. Powerful gaze, deeply recessed eyes. Pathos

Question 22

Portrait of Augustus (Octavian Type)

Answer 22

30 BCE. Marble, from Pollentia. Almost emaciated face, with furrowed brow. A nervous quality, with hair in almost electric shape.

Question 23

Portrait of Augustus (Prima Porta Type)

Answer 23

Marble, from Roma (villa of Livia by Prima Porta). A softening down, smoothing of facial features. Eyebrows evener, furrows gone. Mouth broader, slightly tilted up vs Octavian type. Hair smoother. Idealization, classicization, balance, calming. From ruthless politician of the late Republic to a benevolent ruler. Invoking peace and comfort. An age of idealized beauty, a new golden age. Unification, reconciliation.

Question 24

Portrait of Tiberius

Answer 24

Mid 1st CE, marble. Showing a youthful face just like Augustus to assert the eternal peace of the regime.

Question 25

Portrait of Caligula

Answer 25

Marble, from Turkey. Showing a youthful face just like Augustus to assert the eternal peace of the regime.

Question 26

Portrait of Claudius

Answer 26

Marble. Claudius was 50 years old ascending to throne. 1st time in 77 years where emperor shown with signs of age. Still with the Julio-Claudian haircut however. Wrinkles and sagging skin indicate age. Had to visually show that he was different from young crazy Caligula.

Question 27

Four portrait types of Nero

Answer 27

1. 51 CE
2. 54-5 CE
3. 59 CE
4. 64 CE
   The first emperor where we can follow a development in aging.

Question 28

Portrait of Vespasian

Answer 28

Marble

Question 29

Portrait of Vespasian

Answer 29

Marble, from Ostia.

Question 30

Portrait of Titus

Answer 30

Marble

Question 31

Portrait of Domitian

Answer 31

Marble

Question 32

Portrait bust of Trajan

Answer 32

Marble

Question 33

Portrait of Hadrian

Answer 33

Marble, from Rome.

Question 34

Portrait bust of Antinous

Answer 34

Marble

Question 35

Portrait of Antoninus Pius

Answer 35

Marble, from Formia

Question 36

Portrait Bust of Marcus Aurelius

Answer 36

Marble

Question 37

Portrait Bust of Lucius Verus

Answer 37

Marble

Question 38

Portrait Bust of Commodus as Hercules

Answer 38

Marble

Question 39

Portrait Bust of Septimus Severus

Answer 39

193-212 CE, Marble and alabaster. His hair and face look like Aurelians, but he was inaugurator of now line from Africa. Emperor after Commodus’s assassination. Chooses to represent himself in continuity with Aurelian line. Adds names saying he is son of Marcus Aurelius and brother of Commodus (though an “adoption” never happened). Choice of looking like MA not devoid of political implications. Upward gaze.

Question 40

Portrait of Caracalla

Answer 40

212-217 CE. Marble. A change from the Aurelian look. First fierce emperor. Head dramatically twisted towards right as if disturbance. Furrowed brow, intense crease between eyes, mouth slightly down. Hair not luxurious but cropped. Attire of soldiers. Power and authority based on power of army - Showing himself as one of them, displaying military virtues such as fearlessness and ferocity. Emotion unlike previous.

Question 41

Relief with Nero in military attire crowned by Agrippina minor represented as Fortuna

Answer 41

50-60 CE, Aphrodisias, Sebasteion. From building dedicated to imperial cult. Idealization of woman - no real personal characteristics. Women had no official political role but worked behind the scenes. Perceived as more dangerous because not official. How to both acknowledge and restrain female political power? To acknowledge women bout confine them by taking imagery away from real world, where politics happening. Divine bodies like Fortuna and Venus safely removed from political realm.

Question 42

Portrait of Livia

Answer 42

Marble, Fayum. Shown with smooth beautiful features - some individual characteristics but mostly idealized. Hairstyle different, but was allowed because did not have same sort of political meanings.

Question 43

**Portrait of Agrippina Minor

Answer 43

Mid 1st. Green Chalcedony.

Question 44

**Portrait of Iulia Titi

Answer 44

80 CE, marble.

Question 45

Ara Pacis Augustae

Answer 45

13-9 BCE., Campus Martius. Patron - senate not the emperor - needed acknowledgement. Full of allusions. Classical Greek style.. Celebration of return from Western colonies. Contrasting elements - tension - monument celebrates peace/order, but for his return from war. In Campus Martius. Close to captured obelisk/war booty. Obelisk pointing towards Ara Pacis on his birthday: control of time. Walls boundary between profane, sacred. Two registers (outer) - lower with ornamental, upper with figural. Friezes on long sides and panels on short. Two registers (interior) - frieze with lotus motif on top and carving look like wood bottom. Paramount importance on time. Images flanking Via Flaminia: Dea Roma and Terra Mater/Tellus. Flanking Campus Martius: Mars/She-wolf/Romulus/Remus, Sacrifice of Aeneas. Long sides - present or immediate past.

Question 46

**Mausoleum of Augustus

Answer 46

28 BCE, Campus Martius.

Question 47

**Relief with Dionysos visiting a worshipper

Answer 47

50-30 BCE, marble.Dionysos approaches reclining figure; followed by smaller satyrs. Not devoid of politics - Dionysos connected more to Antony and Asiatic style of rhetoric. Ornate style becomes less popular after Augustus wins/absent in imperial imagery.

Question 48

**Relief with Apolline triad and Victoria

Answer 48

30 BCE, marble. Apolline triad approaches Victoria, who pours libation to Apollo in sacred precinct. Not devoid of politics: Augustus was of Atticizing rhetoric style - politicized style. As opposed to the relief with Dionysos that has associations with Hellenistic/Asiatic art (Antony and Asiatic rhetoric).

Question 49

Forum of Augustus

Answer 49

2 BCE (dedicated). New plan and old plan. Temple of Mars Ultor. Caryatids and shield with Juppiter-Ammon (marble) - 10-2 BCE.

Question 50

Arch of Titus

Answer 50

Early 80s CE. Along Sacra Via. Largely restored. Dedicated by Senate to Vespasian and Titus. Military dimension seen in spandrels: two victories carrying trophies of some kind. Connection with triumph made evident by small frieze on 4 sides of arch. Everything is labeled. Figures don’t overlap on frieze - easy to check ritual correctness. Panels on inner bay: Titus on chariot, Soldiers with spoils of Jerusalem. Both processions face Capitoline hill. Lots of layering, deep space, emphasis on tension and excitement. Movement. Empty space confined to upper half of frieze. Conflation of real and imaginary - pers of victory enacting custom of crowning that would have been done by slave. Arch within arch - meta commentary on function of arches. Square at top - Titus flying on eagle, ascending to heaven.

Question 51

Flavian Ampitheater/Colosseum

Answer 51

71-80 CE, Rome. Returning to public what Nero privatized. 240 arches total. Bottom Tuscanic, Middle Ionic, Top Corinthian. Citizens could experience selves as organized society. Spectacle of Roman society with emperor as guarantor of order. Paid for by war booty. Order created through rule and military success of Vespasian and the Flavians.

Question 52

**Arch of Constantine

Answer 52

Statues of Dacians from Forum of Trajan.

Question 53

Forum of Trajan

Answer 53

112 CE (inaugurated). Large central space with basilica by short side, small courtyard with two libraries, four apses. Reference to forum of Augustus by imitating but adding two more apses - competition. Building forum asserts that he is a founder of the city. Colossal equestrian statue in courtyard. Different hypotheses about plan - monumental entrance or temple for divinized Trajan? Depending on answer Column becomes either culmination or in front. Statues of defeated Dacians alternated with shields that had portraits with imperial family members. Not heroes but imperial family that decides history. Dacians not shown as humiliated but fierce - worthy enemies.

Question 54

Trajan’s column

Answer 54

113 CE. Forum of Trajan. 19 marble drums with 3500 figures in low relief. Ashes of Trajan in the city walls…Trajan aiming high as only heroes/mythological figures got this. Base with heaps of Dacian weapons. Column with two Dacian campaigns of Trajan. Roman troops walk across Danube river (civilization to savage). Battle between Dacians and Romans. At the end, submission. End of first campaign, but then battle again. Visibility problems: strategies - repetition of emperor’s postures, specific alignments, painted, could see from balconies. Pose challenge to viewers - have to stand up to challenge of being worthy to see. Emperor never shown fighting. Rome presented as orderly civilizing force. Inclusion: Numidians, Germans in the army. Dacians can be civilized - assimilation - shave beards, don toga.

Question 55

Arch of Trajan

Answer 55

114 CE. Beneventum. Unusual - dedicated by Senate and city of Rome outside Rome. Celebrates Trajan’s reconstruction of Appian way - at the beginning of the road. Military undertones. Decoration flanking inscription in attic - left with Jupiter handing thunderbolt over, right with Trajan receiving power of the top dog (takes place in Rome). Inner bay with two large relief panels. Sacrifice scene, alimenta scene. To support children that would become soldiers - administrative act into art. In premodern states, a need to make bureaucracy visible. Mothers become pers of cities grateful to king. Reliefs on pylon show the fruits of policy.

Question 56

Cuirassed statue of Hadrian

Answer 56

Marble, Olympia. She wolf with twins, Minerva on top. Owl, snake. Two victories holding out crowns to Minerva. Athena alluded to. Strength of empire based on combo of Roman and Greek. Hadrian had personal predilection for Greece but also sign of times, with growing importance of Greek part of Mediterranean.

Question 57

Temple of Venus and Rome

Answer 57

121 CE, Rome. Hadrian personally involved in designing and building. Colossal columns on two sides - center has temple - made in Greek style dipteral decastyle. Paradox because temple to Venus and Rome. Two cellas, one for each divinity. Huge - much bigger than temple of Jupiter - competing and surpassing. Picking up Augustan tradition with Venus. Also never had temple to Rome in city. Counterpart to Athens Olympian Zeus temple. Placing two cities on par.

Question 58

Pantheon

Answer 58

114-123 CE, Campus Martius, Rome. Originally built by Agrippa, destroyed twice by fires, Hadrian’s is the one seen today. Originally a large courtyard separating from rest of Campus Martius. 3 elements: rotunda, pronaos, rectangular element that connects. Internal with diameter of 150 Roman feet, as high as broad. 7 exedrae. Element of cosmicness. Opening 8 m in diameter connecting artificial building with nature. Dialogue w universe. Kind of like baths - frigidarium. That’s why porch with columns important to say it’s sacred. Theory that change of plans - columns dropped 10 feet so anomalies on exterior.

Question 59

Mausoleum of Hadrian

Answer 59

140 CE, Rome.

Question 60

Temple of Hadrian

Answer 60

140-145 CE. Rome

Question 61

Domus Italica

Answer 61

Typical single-family house of Republic, with rooms with clearly defined functions. Fauces - foyer. Atrium - central reception area. Tabernae - Stores flanking fauces. Compluvium - central opening over atrium; impulvium - basin.. Cubicula - bedrooms on sides of atrium. Tablinum - Office of head of household. Hortus - garden at back. Later hortus replaced by Hellenized peristyle (2nd cent, BCE). Sometimes naming rooms difficult because multifunctional depending on time or need.

Question 62

Campus Martius

Answer 62

The field of Mars. Area to train soldiers. Triumphal procession began here. Temples dedicated to war.

Question 63

Invention of concrete

Answer 63

From late 3rd BCE. Clear differentiation between wall and decor. Walls made of concrete but always faced with something. Could be faced with opus incertum, irregular stones. Also opus reticulatum, which came in 1st C.E.

Question 64

Pompeii

Answer 64

Only became Roman in 80s BCE - before, Oscan people. Subordinate ally of Rome. Administrative independence but had to send soldiers.

Question 65

Basilica

Answer 65

Civic building in city center. Roofed extension of Forum, hosting judicial, business, auction, political activity. Basilica from Greek word - another way which Rome competes with Hellenistic kingdoms. Providing civic life with new artistic architectural quality. Something that could be seen on same level as Greek buildings

Question 66

Conservative views

Answer 66

Conservative Romans opposed theaters and baths because were seen as softening of traditional habits. Also places where people experienced selves as crowds - dangerous because potentially subversive.

Question 67

Villas

Answer 67

Villa = countryside residences, which started not as luxury residence but as productive estate. During 2nd century BCE became place to escape city life. A place for aristocrats to enjoy Greek cultures and products without having to face public scrutiny. Private affinity was something you did not want to overly display.

Question 68

Wall painting - 1st and 2nd

Answer 68

1st style: painting imitates texture of marble. Not meant as cheap replacement. Dignifying by allusion to marble and underscoring artistry. 2nd style: illusionistic architecture opening out into space beyond such as landscape. Purpose not to deceive - allusion not illusion. Playing with space - aesthetic pleasure - viewer aware of qualities of space

Question 69

Julio-Claudian Emperor Dates

Answer 69

Augustus (27 BCE - 14 CE)
Tiberius (14 CE - 37 CE)
Caligula (37 CE - 41 CE)
Claudius (41 CE - 54 CE)
Nero (54 CE - 68 CE)

Question 70

Portraits of emperor

Answer 70

Way to communicate with people. In all public areas. Portrait as proxy - emperor present at all public events. Beyond statue - legal consequences - swearing in front of statue.

Question 71

Augustus and Agrippa

Answer 71

Born in same year. Augustus astute but physically weak. Agrippa less astute but dynamic military commander. Enter political stage at same time. Agrippa always loyal to Augustus.

Question 72

Julio-Claudian Portraits

Answer 72

No aging. The new regime brings history to a stop. Stability. An eternally beautiful age. Continuity.

Question 73

Upward gaze in statues

Answer 73

From late Hadrianic period on, a feature in portrait sculpture where pupils of eyes incised. Intense gaze inspired from above.

Question 74

Dea Roma and Terra Mater/Tellus on Ara Pacis

Answer 74

13-9 BCE. Facing Via Flaminia. Both are allegories - symbolic and timeless representations of concept. Dea Roma - triumphant while resting. Always ready to stand up to restore order, but at the moment. Tellus beautiful and chaste, holding two babies and fruit. Wind personifications. Animals and amphora at her feet. Fresh and salt water to left and right. The results of peace - changes universe in totality. All females - fecundity.

Question 75

Mars/Romulus and Aeneas on Ara Pacis

Answer 75

13-9 BCE. Side facing Campus Martius. Standing male figures not involved in dramatic or dynamic actions. Aeneas - sacrifice to thank gods for abundance. Sow allusion to when Aeneas got to Rome, saw sow, sign that he should settle. Actual moment in time (though distant mythological past) - not allegory. Personal connection to Augustus. Mars, she-wolf, Romulus, Remus scene same concept.

Question 76

Long sides of the Ara Pacis

Answer 76

13-9 BCE. Show present or immediate past. Members of Roman senate, high priests, Augustus, followers, family. Maybe procession of supplicatia thanking Augustus’s return. Aug on south side, what you see first from city. Not in center, not bigger than everyone. Agrippa there but he died during construction - temporality. Not central but they are 1st third and 2nd. Augustus in same sacrificial pose as Aeneas. Emphasis on equality to others - first citizen. This probably to appease Senate. Women and children. Solemn but cute stuff too.

Question 77

Triumphal arch

Answer 77

Only in late antiquity does this phrase appear. Before, arches considered first and foremost as honorary monuments, to celebrate individual. Statue of honoree lost in all arches. Arch was used as pedestal for honoree. Shapes modern understanding, as we take arch as complete monument.

Question 78

Triumph

Answer 78

Procession awarded by Senate, victorious army enters city gates. Ritually controlled, path always used to Capitoline hill. Carry all sorts of booty, paintings, other objects. Not just about specific event, but universality of Roman power.