Workbook 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is a Project?

A

A unique process, consisting of a set of coordinated and controlled activities with start and finish dates, undertaken to achieve an objective conforming to specific requirements, including the constraints of time, cost and resources.

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2
Q

What is a project designed to do?

A

A project is designed to deliver one or more outputs in accordance with an agreed business case.

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3
Q

What are the key features of a project?

A

1- Projects are coordinated and controlled.

2-Projects have a start and finish dates-Projects should be formally started and formally closed out.

3-Projects are undertaken to achieve an objective-this is essential as the organisation must put a business case forward to justify why the project is needed and money is only spent on achieving approved objectives. If business case not sufficiently robust the project should not go ahead.

4-Projects have constraints of time, cost and resources-The impact of these constraints on achieving a project’s objectives that give rise to the need for coordination and control.

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4
Q

Scenarios

A

-Hartshap Hotel Chain
- Colswell City Council
-Cloud Airlines
All scenarios meet basic definition of a project and these scenarios are about an organisation to bring about change in organisational capabilities.

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5
Q

What is a successful project?

A

Is the one that achieves its objectives on time and within budget. Therefore, have a controlled start,middle and close for that project to be managed.

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6
Q

What is the most well known management method in the UK in the public sector?

A

PRINCE2

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7
Q

What is PRINCE2?

A

Is a project management method specifically designed to ensure that projects achieve their objectives.

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8
Q

What does PRINCE2 contain?

A

-Clear structures of authority and responsibility.

  • Standard templates for all key documents.

-Coordination of all people and activities involved in the project.

  • Built in quality controls.

-Methods for dealing with deviations from plan.

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9
Q

What are the criticisms of PRINCE2 method?

A

-Creates too much paperwork.

-Requires too much time to follow every process through.

-Is not necessary for small scale projects.

-Is not flexible enough for complex projects.

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10
Q

Who uses PRINCE2?

A

The basic principles of PRINCE2 are used by private companies and national government.

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11
Q

What is the most well known project methodology?

A

Waterfall method which takes a logical sequential approach to running projects.

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12
Q

Why is the traditional approach to project management known as the waterfall method?

A

This is because represents a steady flow of activities in defined project stages. Each waterfall phase is completed and signed off before the next one begins. The aim to ensure greater project and deadline control

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13
Q

What is are the stages of the waterfall method?

A

1-Project start up and initiation- The project team first analyses , then determines and priorities business requirements , needs and objectives. The project scope is determined and fixed so that designs can be based on exact requirements.

2- Project planning- The best way to meet user needs is established and project plans are developed and designed. It is essential to get the design stage right before any plans are implemented, to avoid expensive changes later.

3-Project implementation- Implementation activities take place to create the required products as defined in the plan. Each stage in the project is completed and must be signed off before the next one is started.

4-Project closure, evaluation and maintenance.

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14
Q

What are the advantages of the waterfall approach?

A

-Projects are easier to plan because the full project scope is defined in advance.

  • Projects are simpler to communicate and manage as the project gas discrete, easily recognised stages and clear milestones to progress.

-The methodology is well known and understood.

-There is an emphasis on documentation so that if individual team member leave the project, no knowledge is lost.

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15
Q

Link to scenarios?

A

Yes we can use this methodology to our scenarios but does not for the ones we don’t know outcome in advance. Hartshap Hotel-different projects , different outcomes and different elements to the project need to be completed so harder to plan (disad of waterfall method).

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16
Q

What is Agile?

A

An alternative technique for managing the software development phase of projects. Techniques associated with agile can be applied to management and governance of projects where high degree of complexity and uncertainty- factors that make waterfall approach too cumbersome.

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17
Q

What are Agile methodologies based on?

A

Based on short , repeatable stages known as sprints to allow for an iterative approach to design.

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18
Q

What is Scrum?

A

Scrum is the most popular Agile methodology and more suited in projects where:
-Project requirements are not clear.
-Ongoing change is likely.
-Frequent and repeated testing will be required.

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19
Q

Scrum can better deal with?

A

-Speed (the need to progress and respond to change quickly).
- Changing client requirements.

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20
Q

What is a project mandate?

A

A project mandate is a short document which contains the basic terms of reference used to initiate the project. It should briefly explain the scope of the project, the hoped for outcomes, the anticipated timescales and the available budget.

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21
Q

Who approves the project mandate?

A

Senior management

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22
Q

What role does a project play?

A

The role it will play in achieving the organisation’s strategic objectives must be clearly identified.

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23
Q

What is required to convert a project from an abstract idea to a series of practical activities, designed to achieve the project objectives?

A

A clear plan of approach which explains what is to be delivered, when it will be delivered and how the promised outputs will be achieved is required.

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24
Q

At the end of the project start-up and initiation phase what details will be clear?

A

The project governance structures:
- Identifying who is doing what- the project stakeholders.
-Identifying other stakeholders with an interest in the project.

The project details:
-The business case.
-The expected outputs.
-The quality plan.
-The success criteria.

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25
Q

What is effective stakeholder engagement?

A

Is a key part of ensuring a successful project and failure to keep stakeholders involved and on-side is a common cause of project failure.

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26
Q

What happens when the stakeholder groups have been identified?

A

The various stakeholder groups will be included in the formal communications plan and a strategy for managing them will be developed.

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27
Q

What is the project stakeholder hierarchy?

A

The hierarchy represents project stakeholders who have particular roles and specific responsibilities for the success of the project.

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28
Q

What does the project stakeholder hierarchy show?

A

Named individuals or groups should be appointed to each of the roles in the hierarchy with a clear allocation of responsibility and authority between them. Information usually passes up through the hierarchy for review,approval or problem solving. The frequency, format and recipients of project reports from the different stakeholders in the hierarchy should be agreed in advance to ensure control and effective decision making.

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29
Q

What is a project sponsor?

A

May be a single senior manager or a project board that has the ultimate responsibility for the project’s success and final approval for the funding. Makes investment decision.

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30
Q

What is a project client?

A

The project’s client is the individual(s) or organisation that specifically requested or required the project outputs ( person/ organisation that requested the project). It is the client that details the project requirements. The sponsor and client can be the same person, but are also often different people , as it depends on the nature of the project.

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31
Q

What is a project customer?

A

The customer is the end user of the project outputs and it is their needs the project is designed to meet. For many projects there will be more than one customer.

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32
Q

What is a project manager?

A

The project manager is responsible for managing all aspects of the project, to achieve the stakeholder’s objectives and overall project output. It will be the project manager that feeds back information on schedules and status reports from the team to the other stakeholders.

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33
Q

What is the day to day work of the project manager?

A

Is known as managing the 3 P’s which are:
-People- project team,suppliers, stakeholders.

-Process-planning, organising and controlling all the activities required to achieve the project objective.

-Product-delivering the end result on-time, within budget and to the specification required.

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34
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a professional project manager?

A

Advantages- High quality outcomes as better communication between stakeholders and effective management of project team, reduced final cost resulting from efficient use of resources and careful adherence to the project plan.

Disadvantages- Project managers are expensive, reduction in creativity as project manager is focused on managing resources and delivering within agreed timeframe.

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35
Q

What is a project team?

A

A project team is responsible for achieving project tasks that make up overall project and is often brought together specifically for the project and will:

  • Be responsible for carrying out the individual project tasks required to deliver the final project outcomes.
  • Contain people from different departments and/or organisations and from different disciplines.

-Often be managed outside the normal management structure.

-Be led by the project manager.

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36
Q

What is a project accountant?

A

The project accountant is responsible for managing, updating and monitoring the project budget. The project accountant will use the concept of ‘project accounting’ and report directly to the project manager.

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37
Q

What are the key features of a project accounting?

A

The key features of a project accounting are:
-Project finances are recorded in a separate account from operational spending because they are not part of day to day activities.

-Because project spending is harder to predict than day to day operational spending, it is essential that a rolling budget approach is taken and the impact of current information is used to update future forecasts.

-One of the major components of many project budgets is the labour cost. The use of labour time will therefore need to be reforecast throughout the project and the updated predictions used to recalculate the expected labour cost.

-Cross department charges. Disagreements can arise when staff are taken from operational departments to work on a project. Departmental heads may wish to charge the project budget for the time spent by staff from their department and it is vital that the specifics of any such charges are determined and agreed in advance to prevent later difficulties.

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38
Q

What is a role of a finance director?

A

An organisation’s finance director usually sit on the project board of major project. Their specific focus will be on monitoring the objectives of the business case and determining the effect of any changes on the anticipated financial benefits. Also, responsible for resolving resource issues and the finance director will have the authority to review budgets and allocate resources as needed.

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39
Q

What is the role of project manager?

A

To identify the various stakeholder groups ( including external stakeholders) and provide the information needed by the project sponsor to ensure they are managed effectively. As the people will make a change, you need to establish who will be affected along with the potential impacts.

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40
Q

What has to happen before the detailed project planning can begin?

A

The justification for and expectations from the project must be properly understood by all those involved.

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41
Q

What must the project manager ensure?

A

They have defined the: business case, project outputs, quality plan and success criteria.

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42
Q

What is a business case

A

A business case provides the formal justification of the project and a base against which the ongoing viability of the project can be evaluated.

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43
Q

What should a project business case include?

A

It should include:
- The reasons for undertaking the project.i.e: project objectives.
-The other options considered and why this particular option has been chosen.
-The benefits expected from the project. i.e: increased revenues.
-Approximate costs.
-Approximate timescales- the date by which major milestones should be achieved.
-Summary of the main risks.
-Supporting investment appraisal calculations.

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44
Q

What if it is not possible to make a convincing business case for the project?

A

The process should not continue further. The project sponsor, along with the client and project manager, should review the options available and determine an alternative course of action.

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45
Q

In drawing up the business case there will always be a trade off between three key factors which are?

A

1- Cost -the budget agreed- Public service organisations are limited by resources available and little flexibility to provide additional funding if original budget is underestimated.

2- Timescales- the deadlines for delivery of the project’s outputs- often projects will have specific deadline by which it must be completed.

3- Project scope- the specific project characteristics, outputs and results which will be delivered- The greater the project scope ( the more that is asked for), the more time and money will be required to achieve it.

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46
Q

What must be required with project outputs?

A

The specific scope of the project and the outputs or deliverables required must be clear,y identified and agreed. The aim is not to detail every project task but to refine the five or six major milestones identified in the business case into major stages or steps required to achieve them

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47
Q

What is meant by Quality?

A

Must be determined reference to:
-Any legal or practical requirements for the project and
-The customer’s quality expectations

As part of the planning process the quality standard for each process or output must be determined and agreed.

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48
Q

What are indicators of success?

A

Once the outputs have been agreed, the stakeholders must agree indicators of success. These indicators relate directly to objectives for the project , which are capabilities that the organisation is looking to gain from its implementation.

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49
Q

What is hard criteria?

A

Relates to specific outputs, delivery dates and costs.

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50
Q

What is soft criteria?

A

The success of the project may be measured by soft criteria relating to user satisfaction. This relates to the experience of the customers ( both during the project and afterwards when using the result) and the performance of the organisation. This is important as a project may be deemed a success in terms of project management and yet a failure in terms of overall user experience.

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51
Q

Why is it important to measure soft criteria as well as measuring hard criteria?

A

-Has project been successful.
-Hard criteria is tick box but soft criteria is more informative feedback.

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52
Q

What is one useful way to develop KPIs?

A

Is to categorise the benefits for which measures should be determined:
-Direct monetary benefits- quantifiable in financial terms (cost savings).
-Direct non-monetary benefits-tangible and specifically measurable using KPIs (fewer customer complaints).
-Indirect benefits- Identifiable but harder to measure (greater staff motivation). KPIs may be developed but will require more inventive solutions (staff satisfaction surveys).

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53
Q

What is the Project Initiation Documentation (PID)?

A

The key information needed to start the project should be drawn together into Project Initiation Documentation. This can be one or several linked documents depending on the project.

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54
Q

What does the Project Initiation Documentation contain details of?

A

-What the project is intended to achieve.
-Why it is important to achieve it.
-Who is going to be involved in the project and their roles and responsibilities.
-How and when it is going to happen and how much it should cost.
-How success will be measured.

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55
Q

What happens after the PID is formed?

A

The project sponsor will review the PID to confirm that the project has a sound business basis before formally approving it to proceed to the detailed planning stage.The PID will also provide a base for the sponsor and the project manager to evaluate the subsequent progress and success of the project.

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56
Q

What happens once the PID is approved?

A

The detailed project planning can begin. Project planning is a key process in the achievement of the project objectives and can take months, if the project is complex.

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57
Q

How do you develop a detailed plan?

A

Each of the project milestones must be further broken down into stages,products or deliverables, and work packages.

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58
Q

What is a work breakdown structure?

A

Is a tree structure that subdivides the work needed to achieve an overall project objective into distinct, definable,measurable pieces (products). It shows all the steps which must be taken to achieve the objective. It has four main purposes:
1-To ensure the scope of the total project is defined and organised.
2-To help assign responsibilities and allocate resources.
3-To permit accurate estimation of time and costs and any potential risks.
4-To allow for monitoring and controlling the project.

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59
Q

To help the project sponsor retain control of the project it needs to?

A

First needs to be broken down into logical stages.This is done as part of the project initiation stage and will be included in the PID

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60
Q

What are products?

A

The separate outcomes or deliverables are known as products. All products to be achieved within a stage are identified and listed in detail.

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61
Q

What should be included in a product tree?

A

All the products defined by the project scope must be included in this structure and this rule applies at all levels of hierarchy.

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62
Q

What should deliverables be?

A

Each deliverable must be mutually exclusive- no overlaps. Ensures clear allocation of responsibilities.

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63
Q

When can a work package be developed and what does it contain?

A

Once the detailed product hierarchy has been produced, a work package for each product at the lowest level of hierarchy can be developed. Work package contains the details of actual work to be done.

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64
Q

What are the two key outputs software produces for use in managing the project day to day?

A

Network diagrams
Gantt chart

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65
Q

What does Network diagrams and Gantt charts show?

A

Both are pictorial representations of the project which show the interdependencies between the activities and the order in which they must be carried out. Also, highlight the critical path, the longest route through all the dependent activities and therefore shortest time in which the project can be completed.

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66
Q

What is the difference between Network diagram and Gantt charts?

A

A network diagram is particularly useful for understanding dependencies. But a Gantt chart’s strength is that it provides an overview of the project schedule and the duration of each activity can be clearly identified.

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67
Q

What are the key terms of Network diagrams?

A
  • Activity: the individual tasks which must be carried out to complete
    the project. Each activity takes time – this is its duration.
  • Event: each activity must have a start and a finish. These points are
    called events. They have no duration; they are simply points in time.
    Significant events, such as those on the critical path, are sometimes
    referred to as milestones.
  • Critical path: the longest sequence of activities through a project
    from the start event to the finish event. The critical path therefore
    defines the project duration – the minimum amount of time the
    project can take. Activities on the critical path are known as critical
    activities.
    -Non-critical activities: These activities have a float which means the
    activity can be delayed by the length of the float without causing a
    delay to subsequent tasks.
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68
Q

Can some activities be going on the same time?

A

Yes some can be going on at the same time if they are no dependencies ( one activity cannot start until another activity is complete).

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69
Q

Network diagram (look on pg41 workbook 1)

A

In the diagram, each activity is represented by a line with an arrowhead
which indicates the flow of time. Each activity is labelled to show its name
and / or its identifying code (in this case A, B, C, etc.). The time required for
each activity is also shown.
Activities start and finish at events, which are represented in the diagram as
circles. Each activity has a start event and a finish event. Each event circle
is numbered only to identify it and the numbers do not offer any additional
information.. The activities on this path take a total of 9 days, so that is
the shortest period in which the project can be completed, unless some way
can be found to speed up one or more of the critical activities.

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70
Q

What does Gantt charts show?

A

A Gantt chart uses the same information as a network diagram - activity
durations, dependencies, critical paths and floats. The information, though,
is presented in a different format.
In a Gantt chart the activities are shown as horizontal bars with their lengths
representing how many weeks each will take.

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71
Q

What is a Communication plan?

A

A communications plan is an essential tool for managing stakeholders
throughout the project. The importance of this plan cannot be overstated.
Lack of stakeholder engagement is a regular feature of failed projects.

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72
Q

What is the aim of a communication plan?

A

The aim of the plan goes beyond pacifying potentially problematic
stakeholders, to fostering support, incorporating relevant feedback into
the project’s activities in a timely fashion and ensuring that the users of the
project’s outputs are able to benefit from them after its completion.

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73
Q

What are the stages to develop a communication plan?

A

The first stage is to identify all those parties that:
* Will need to provide information to the project team.
* Will require information from the project manager.
The stakeholders to be included are not just those directly involved in the
project process but also relevant stakeholder groups with an interest in the
project outcomes.
For each stakeholder group identified, a plan should then be developed to
show in detail:
* The objective of the communication and the key messages to convey.
* How and when the information should be supplied.

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74
Q

What the factors to consider for the appropriate communication media (teams, email,phone) to use?

A
  • Cost
  • Degree of coverage required
  • Degree of consistency required
  • Speed of feedback required
  • Complexity of the message
  • Personalisation of the message
  • Need for two-way communication
  • Need to engender team spirit
  • Demographic and expectations of the stakeholders
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75
Q

Standard Communication plan (Pg52 workbook 1)

A

A template for a standard communications plan is shown below. The specific relevant stakeholder groups will need to be adapted to suit the
specific context of the project.

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76
Q

In conjunction with the project accountant, the project manager will have 3 types of budget to manage what are they?

A
  • Planned work budget – The planned work activities are costed
    against the project plan. This budget is then allocated to the project
    manager to manage the agreed, planned activities.
  • Change budget – The project manager may have an agreed level of
    budget available to spend on requested changes to the project. If the
    budget is exceeded, the project manager would need board approval
    for budget changes to cover further costs arising from a change. In
    some cases, an intermediate authority known as change authority
    can be agreed as part of the project governance set up – this person
    can then approve changes which are higher than allowed to the
    project manager initially, up to the level where board approval is still
    required. This would be set to balance a level of control with speed
    of decision-making.
  • Risk budget – The project board can set a level of budget for the
    project manager to use to manage risk. This budget cannot be used
    for changes (changes in scope) or overruns (possible impact of a risk
    materialising) but to take actions to mitigate a risk.
How well did you know this?
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77
Q

What is Risk?

A

Risk can be defined as the uncertainty of an outcome, whether positive
opportunity or negative threat, of actions and events. In the context of a
project, the focus is almost exclusively on the potential for negative threats
which may thwart the project’s objectives.

78
Q

What must be in place for managing risk?

A

Formal risk management system.

79
Q

What does the risk management process involve?

A

The risk management process involves three stages:
1. Identifying risks
2. Assessing the risks identified
3. Developing a suitable response.

80
Q

When should a risk assessment be performed?

A

A risk assessment should be performed:
* At the start of the project: The project should only be given the
go ahead if the risks are assessed as acceptable and the risk
management plan is approved. We will be looking in detail at the
contents of a risk management plan in the rest of this section.
* At the end of every stage: Existing risks should be reviewed and
the new risks associated with the next stage analysed. The project
should only continue to the next stage if the risk profile continues to
be acceptable.
* Every time a change to the project is requested: The implication
of the change on risk avoidance or reduction activities should be
considered before the change is approved.
* At the end of the project: Any outstanding risks may affect the
operation of the products during their useful lives.

81
Q

What is a risk workshop?

A

To identify the risks, a designated team may be established to carry out
a project risk review, sometimes called a risk workshop. Sometimes, all
those involved in the project may be asked to review the activities they
are responsible for and identify any risks they face. In a large and complex
project, a project manager will not be able to identify all the risks involved
without the involvement of the project team and key stakeholders.

82
Q

What is the difference between Inherent Risk and Residual Risk?

A

It is important to distinguish between:
* Inherent risk: The exposure arising from a specific risk before any
action has been taken to manage it.
* Residual risk: The exposure arising from a specific risk after action
has been taken to manage it, assuming that the action is effective.

83
Q

Example of Inherent and Residual Risks?

A

Consider the example of wearing a seat belt in a car – there is an inherent
risk of injury but the action of wearing a seat belt does not eliminate the
risk but reduces the risk, so the residual risk is that injury is less likely or its
impact can be less severe.It is the residual risk which represents the actual risk exposure of the project
and it is that which should be acceptable and justified – i.e. it should be
within the organisation’s risk tolerance.

84
Q

Should risks be linked to objectives?

A

A critical factor in identifying risks is understanding that risks must be
related to objectives.Specifically about the risk to the project, so it is
key to identify the specific risks to the project objectives.It is important to take care to identify the risk to the project objectives and not confuse this with the impact of the risk if it materialises.

85
Q

Example of risks being linked to objectives?

A

Objective: To travel by train from A to B to get to a meeting for a certain
time.

86
Q

What are the three aspects for assessing risk?

A
  • The organisation must decide on its risk tolerance or appetite, i.e. the
    level of risk it is prepared to tolerate.
  • The risks identified must be categorised according to their impact
    and likelihood
  • The significance of the risks must be determined based on their
    impact and likelihood and the organisation’s risk appetite
87
Q

What is a risk appetite?

A

Risk appetite is defined as “the level of exposure which is considered
tolerable and justifiable should it be realised … it is about comparing the cost
(financial or otherwise) of constraining the risk with the cost of the exposure
should the exposure become a reality and finding an acceptable balance.”A statement of risk appetite is essential to provide management with guidance about the level of risk they are permitted to take.

88
Q

What are the ways of classifying risk appetite by HM Treasury?

A
  • Averse: Avoidance of risk and uncertainty is a key organisational
    objective.
  • Minimalist: Preference for ultra-safe business delivery options that
    have a low degree of inherent risk and only have a potential for
    limited reward.
  • Cautious: Preference for safe delivery options that have a low degree
    of residual risk and may only have limited potential for reward.
  • Open: Willing to consider all potential delivery options and choose
    the one that is most likely to result in successful delivery while also
    providing an acceptable level of reward (and value for money etc.).
  • Hungry: Eager to be innovative and to choose options offering
    potentially higher business rewards, despite greater inherent risk.
89
Q

What does risks require and what dopes framework being used need to take into account?

A

Many of the risks faced by the project will require subjective assessment.The framework used to assess risk must therefore take account of both quantitative and qualitative factors

90
Q

What potential impacts of a risk on the project be judged in relation to the effect on?

A
  • Time
  • Cost
  • Quality
  • Benefits
  • People/resources.
91
Q

What is the straightforward risk matrix (pg63, wb1)

A

The most straightforward risk matrix is a 3x3 risk matrix in which both the
risks and their related likelihoods are categorised as either low, medium or
high.

92
Q

What does a 5x5 matrix show?

A

A more detailed scale may be used where it is possible to apply accurate
values, for example a 5x5 matrix where:
Impacts are categorised as insignificant /minor / moderate/ major/
catastrophic.

93
Q

How is risk categorised 5x5 matrix by HM Treasury?

A

The UK HM Treasury gives the following classification as an example of
how risk impacts may be categorised in a 5x5 matrix:
* Very high – catastrophic: Above the organisation’s defined
tolerance level. Consequences of the risk materialising would have
a disastrous impact on the organisation’s reputation and business
continuity.
* High – major: The consequences of this risk materialising would be
severe but not disastrous.
* Medium – moderate: The consequences of this risk materialising
would have a moderate impact on day-to-day delivery.
* Low – minor: The consequences of this risk materialising would have
a minor impact.
* Very low – insignificant: The organisation accepts this risk / impact
of risk would be insignificant.
Likelihood is measured on a scale of rare / unlikely /possible / likely / almost
certain.

94
Q

What is probability (risk evaluation)?

A

Probability: Estimate the probability of the risk event happening. (pg66)

95
Q

What is impact (risk evaluation)?

A

Impact: Estimate the potential severity if the risk event occurs. (pg66)

96
Q

Risk scoring matrix and trigger points?

A

Multiply the scores for risk probability by the potential impact to give an
overall score. Compare the overall score to the action and authority table
below: (pg66)

97
Q

When a significant risk associated with the project has been identified what does the organisation need to do?

A

-Decide whether to take action to deal with the risk.
-Determine what action to take,where it is considered necessary.
-Record the process in a formal risk log.

98
Q

What is the four T model?

A

Is a commonly used approach to determine a response to downside risk. This suggests one of four responses:
1-Tolerate
2-Treat
3-Transfer
4-Terminate

99
Q

What are the action required to response to tolerate, treat , transfer and terminate?

A

1- Tolerate- take no further action.
2-Treat-Action is taken constrain the risk to an acceptable level by implementing controls.
3-Transfer-Transfer the risk to a third party.
4-Terminate-Cease the activity.

100
Q

What are the suitability to response to tolerate, treat , transfer and terminate risks ?

A

1-Tolerate- Risk is tolerable and a contingency plan may be developed to handle the impact if the risk is realised.
2-Treat-Most risks fall into this category.The activity can continue as the risk is constrained to an acceptable level.
3-Transfer-Useful for financial risks/risks to assets.Some risks cannot bd transferred like damage.
4-Terminate-Of particular relevance in managing projects if the cost/benefit relationship is threatened.

101
Q

What does treating the risk involve?

A

Involves implementing controls to reduce the risk to an acceptable level.

102
Q

What are the types of controls used to deal with risks?

A

1- Preventive controls-designed to limit the possibility of the undesirable outcome occurring. E.g: segregation of duties.

2- Directive controls- Designed to ensure a particular outcome is achieved. E.g: training staff with new equipment.

3- Corrective controls- designed to correct undesirable outcomes if they occur. E.g: contingency plans.

4-Detective controls-designed to identify where undesirable outcomes have been realised. Operate after the event and so are appropriate where the loss or damage can be accepted. E.g: inventory checks.

103
Q

Why is it vital to record the risk management process?

A

As it’s purpose is to:
1-Facilitate identification of the risk priorities and the significant risks issues.
2-Allow for the escalation of risks considered beyond the tolerability threshold.
3-Explain why specific decisions have been made.
4-Allow for ongoing monitoring and risk reviews.

104
Q

Where are risks recorded and why?

A

Risks are recorded in a risk log and they are monitored and reassessed to determine whether further action is needed.

105
Q

What is a RAID log?

A

RAID stands for Risks, Assumptions, Issues and Dependencies. The RAID log would include a separate log for each of the 4 areas of concern:
1- Risks- Possible future negative events which may occur.
2-Assumptions-Events that are set as true for the project to go ahead if they fail to hold true the project fails.The log should record each assumption.
3-Issues- Things that may occur now which will affect the project but may have not been addressed.
4- Dependencies- Products that may be delivered to enable project’s delivery or products to be delivered by project on which other projects depend.

106
Q

What does the RAID log provide?

A

The log provides stakeholders with evidence of the project’s status and helps to determine the agenda for project meetings.

107
Q

What are the reasons why projects fail?

A

-Lack of skills and proven approach to project management and risk management.
-Lack of stakeholder engagement
-Lack of clear link between project and organisation’s key strategic priorities.
-Lack of clear senior management and sponsor ownership and leadership.

108
Q

What is the Government Gateway reviews?

A

Guidance to improve the way in which the public services managed projects and programmes. The Gateway process looks at the progress and likelihood of the successful delivery of programmes and projects at key decision points in their lifecycle. The review process looks at the readiness of a project to progress to the next phase at key stages in the life of the project.

109
Q

What are the 6 stages or gates of the Gateway process?

A

1-Gate 0-stratgeic assessment-Programme only review that investigated the direction and planned outcomes of programme, together with progress of its constituents projects.
2-Gate 1- Business justification- Comes after the strategic business case has been prepared. Focuses on project’s business justification prior to the key decisions on approval for development proposal.
3-Gate 2- Delivery strategy-Investigated the outline business case and delivery strategy before any formal approaches are made.
4-Gate 3- Investment decision- investigated the full business case and the governance arrangements for the investment decision.
5-Gate 4- Readiness for service- focuses on readiness of the organisation to go live with the necessary business changes and arrangements for management of operational services.
6-Gate 5- Operations review and benefit evaluation- Confirms that the desired benefits of the project are being achieved and the business changes are operating smoothly.

110
Q

What does the review team provide?

A

The review team provides a red, amber, green traffic light status for inclusion in the report at the end of each review.

111
Q

What does red, amber and green mean?

A

Red- To achieve success the programme or project should take remedial action immediately. Means fix the key problems fast not stop the project.

Amber- The programme or project should go forward with actions on recommendations to be carried out before the next review.

Green- The programme or project is on target to succeed but may benefit from uptake of recommendations.

112
Q

What does the Gateways reviews provide?

A

Provides a valuable perspective on the issues facing the internal project team and an external challenge to the robustness of plans and processes.

113
Q

The Gateway process provides support in identifying whether?

A

-Adequate skills, business resources and experience are deployed.
-The risks and associated mitigation and contingency are being managed.
-A governance structure is in place and whether all those involved are clear about their roles and responsibilities.

114
Q

What are two stages in closing out a project?

A

Once the products required from the project have been delivered, the project should be formally closed. There are two stages:
1-Decommissioning the project during which the project manager must :
-Obtain agreement of customer and all acceptable criteria of the project are met.
-Ensure all payments are made.
-Close and archive the files.

2- Identifying follow-on actions. This would include:
-Reviewing the risk log for any unresolved issues or continuing risks and recommending appropriate actions.
-Setting a later review date to confirm that they have been actioned.

115
Q

What is the purpose of a Post Project Review (PPR)?

A

Is to evaluate the completed project and learn both what went well and what could have been done better. Achieved by reviewing the RAID log, quality log and meeting with both customers and project team.

116
Q

What issues does IT projects include?

A

-Inadequate planning
-Acquisition of software
-The systems development life cycle
-Growth of e-commerce
-Information systems and the law.

117
Q

What are the additional costs omitted or underestimated that need realistic budgets? (IT projects)

A
  • Installation and implementation of new system and changeover from current ways of working.Transition can take time and requires additional temporary staff.
    -Data migration which is moving data held in existing system to a new one which could require technical work or manual keying so brings labour costs.IT licenses or additional storage may be required.
    -Change. IT projects are particularly prone to scope changes due to changes in technology.
    -Post life support-High level support required from software supplier for first three months after new system is implemented to deal with user queries and fix issues that were not present in testing.
118
Q

Why are IT budgets often underestimated?

A

Behavioural factors:
1-Optimism bias- decision makers estimating the costs of a project to believe that the risk of negative event occurring is far lower than it is.
2-Political will to achieve project outputs.
3-Fixed price contracts.

119
Q

What is another common theme running through failed IT projects?

A

Sponsors treat IT projects in same way they would treat a standard capital construction project. The two major components of this are:
1-A waterfall development approach is taken (assumes design agreed in advance).
2-Consultation with stakeholders is minimal until the project is nearing completion.

The result can be a project that delivers outputs that do not work as expected or are not fully effective.In long term, system may be abandoned with money wasted.

120
Q

What are the 5 main software acquisition methods?

A

1- Off the shelf software
2-Bespoke development
3-Software as a Service (SaaS)
4-Platform as a Service (PaaS)
-Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

121
Q

What is Off the shelf software?

A

Involved the direct purchase of a pre-written application used by more than one company-known as application packages. This available for a whole variety of hardware platforms from PCs to servers.

122
Q

What are the advantages and drawbacks of Off the shelf software?

A

Ads:
1- Cost-Low cost compared to bespoke software with same functionality.
2-Reliability-Dveeloped for commercial market, less likely to suffer from bugs often found in bespoke software.
3- Speed-can be introduced quickly.

Drawbacks:
1- Features- Offer too many unrequired but costly features or not offer all features needed.
2-Inflexibility-The packages may not accommodate some key requirements.
3- Businesses may need to process information in a particular way.

123
Q

What is Bespoke development?

A

Describes the situation where an information system is developed by professionals to suit the specific business requirements of the organisation.

124
Q

What are the disadvantages of Bespoke development?

A

1-Cost- Most expensive way of developing new information systems.
2-Time-Bespoke development when using formal structured methodologies, is notorious for time overruns.
3-Quality- Not free from bugs can range from minor to very serious because of poor analysis of requirements.

125
Q

What is Software as a service (SaaS)?

A

Is a software provided by application service providers to manage many of the standard processes required by an information system. Is one form of cloud computing over the internet.Some Saas providers are Microsoft 365, Google Workspace, Dropbox and etc.

126
Q

What are the ads and disads of Saas?

A

Ads:
- The need to own and manage the software internally is removed which saves money and resources.
-Software can be accessed remotely from wherever staff are located (provided with internet connection is available).

Disads:
-Concerns of data security and fears of potential system failures.
-Power to alter and amend the software is held by the provider rather than organisation so loss of control.

127
Q

Where will SaaS be more beneficial?

A

-Small companies need to launch e-commerce quickly and can save time with minimal IT set up.
-Mobile access is also needed
Short term projects need to collaborate with a quickly, easy and low cost solution and implementation
-Applications for occasional use such as tax return.

128
Q

What is Platform as a service (PaaS)?

A

Another form of cloud computing which provides a platform via the web for software creation so developers can design applications to work in the PaaS, where the PaaS provider deals with operating systems. storage, infrastructure. E.g of PaaS: AWS Elastic Beanstalk, Windows Azure.

129
Q

What are the advantages of Paas?

A

-Simple and cost effective deployment of applications.
-Highly available
-Developers can customise applications without maintaining software.
Same disads as Saas.

130
Q

What is Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)?

A

Another form of cloud computing which is highly scalable and automated resources which organisations use to access and monitor computers, networks and storage. Servers provided via a dashboard. E,g of IaaS: Microsoft Azure, Google Compute Engine.

131
Q

What is a benefit of infrastructure as a service (IaaS) (Cloud Infrastructure services)?

A

It is beneficial to organisations who need to purchase IT capability and resources on demand , where the organisations is experiencing rapid growth or demand and use may also be very variable rather than purchasing hardware.

132
Q

What is the systems development lifecyle?

A

Where an information system is to be developed specifically to meet an organisation’s needs, a series of steps must to be taken place to create or modify and the maintain the system. These steps from development to use of the system are known as the systems development cycle.

133
Q

What is the waterfall method?

A

Where all the activities within each project stage are completed and signed off before the next one is commenced. It is a highly structured and rational approach to developing and installing a new information system in which each phase of development is completed before the next one is started with the emphasis on control and associated documentation.

134
Q

What are the phases of development of waterfall method?

A
  1. Initiation – a new system is proposed in response to a business need
    for change.
  2. Feasibility – the technical, economic and operational feasibility of the
    proposed system is evaluated.
  3. Systems and requirements analysis – the current system is mapped
    and evaluated and the specific user needs from the new system
    identified.
  4. Systems design – how the new system will work in key areas such
    as user interface, program modules and security is determined.
  5. Systems build - programmers write and test the new system.
  6. Implementation – a controlled changeover from the old system takes
    place and the new system goes live.
  7. Review and maintenance – managing errors arising and later
    upgrades.
135
Q

What is the agile approach?

A

Is a flexible, iterative method which stresses collaboration, teamwork and stakeholder involvement. A system for stakeholders to review and give feedback.

136
Q

What happens in the agile approach?

A

The outputs from the project are broken down into smaller elements, groups
of which will be delivered in a ‘sprint’ – a process rarely lasting longer than
two weeks during which all the phases of development are carried out,
including planning, requirements analysis, design, coding, unit testing and
acceptance testing. The aim of agile is to produce a basic working system
quickly so that stakeholders can review it and provide feedback. This
feedback is taken on and the process is repeated until this aspect of the
software is right. Testing is a fundamental part of the agile process, so that
potential problems are identified and addressed immediately

137
Q

What are the advantages of agile:

A

-Flexibility to accommodate changing requirements.
-Reduces risk that end result is not what is required.
-More involvement of stakeholders at all stages so changes are easier to make.

138
Q

What does E-business ( and e-government) mean?

A

Using electronic processes to provide business and government services.

139
Q

What does e stand for?

A

Stands for electronic. e.g: automated telephone banking system.

140
Q

What does E-commerce stand for?

A

Refers to electronic business that involves a financial transaction and as such can be thought of as part of e-business.

141
Q

What are the ads and disads of E-business?

A

ads:
Increased sales
Time saving
real time information availability

Disads:
High levels of investment needs
Greater potential for fraud/ risk to confidentiality of data.
Reliability of technology

142
Q

What are the 4 common terms used to describe e-commerce transactions?

A
  • B2B: online transactions between two business organisations.
  • B2C: online transactions between a business and a consumer.
  • C2C: online transactions between two consumers.
  • C2B: online transactions where a consumer specifies what they
    want and the business responds with offers
143
Q

What does E-government mean?

A

For the application of the principles of e-business to the public sector. Defined as the use of information and communication technologies to improve the activities of public sector organisations. It has three principle objectives:
-cost saving
-improved services
-improved public access

Also known as digital government.

144
Q

What has the UK e-Government unit set out?

A

A vision for public services and requires public sector bodies to undertake three key transformations in order to achieve this vision:
1- Service design- services enabled by IT must be designed around the
citizen or business, not the provider, and provided through modern,
coordinated delivery channels. This will improve the customer
experience, achieve better policy outcomes.

2- Shared services culture-government must move to a shared
services culture – in the front-office, in the back-office, in information
and in infrastructure – and release efficiencies by standardisation,
simplification and sharing.

3- Government’s professionalism- there must be broadening and
deepening of government’s professionalism in terms of the planning,
delivery, management, skills and governance of IT enabled change.

145
Q

What are the changes organisations within public services have made to their front and back office systems to achieve requirements of transformational e-government include?

A

Front-office:
* web site improvements
* intranet development
* contact centres
* smart cards
* customer relationship management software – information
technology used to obtain and analyse information on customer
behaviour
* video conferencing
* kiosks/public access
* remote working
* marketing using web technology
Back-office:
* document imaging
* data management
* e-learning
* workflow management software
* geographical information systems – uses maps to display
information about different geographic locations
* e-procurement

146
Q

What do developers and managers need to follow and how are they expected to behave?

A

Codes of conduct and legal provisions are required to regulate information
systems. It is expected that developers, managers and users of computer-based
information systems will behave:
* Professionally – acting to meet the standards set by a profession in
terms of individual conduct, competence and integrity.
* Ethically – acting in accordance with generally held beliefs
concerning right and wrong.

147
Q

What has to be put in by organisations to ensure an appropriate standard of behaviour is maintained?

A

To ensure an appropriate standard of behaviour is maintained
most professional organisations develop codes of conduct for their members
that clarify their expectations and in return for membership, the individual
accepts a duty to meet certain standards of conduct and behaviour.

148
Q

What is used to maintain standards of behaviour?

A

Laws and legislation.

149
Q

How is data protected?

A

Legislation introduced aimed at protecting people and businesses from the unauthorised gathering,storage,use and disclosure of that data by others.

150
Q

What is Freedom of information?

A

Public have the right to access information held by public authorities under specific circumstances.

151
Q

What are the main forms of computer crime which are currently the focus of legislation?

A
  • Theft – This could involve altering or destroying computer records
    to disguise the theft of money.
  • Malicious software – The creation and dissemination of programs or
    software which damage the computer systems and which can lead
    to significant losses.

-Hacking – This occurs where a private computer is broken into.
Sensitive or confidential data may be accessed without the owner
even realising. Data may be stolen or altered or attacked by
malicious software.

  • Identity Theft – This is a growing problem which arises from
    the increase in internet use for cash and banking transactions.
    Personal data is accessed and used to siphon funds or buy items
    in the victim’s name. Phishing is the term used for sending emails
    purporting to be from reputable companies in order to induce
    individuals to reveal personal information, such as passwords and
    credit card numbers.
152
Q

What is the key feature of projects that are focused specifically on process improvement?

A

Is the drive to reduce waste and inefficiency through the introduction of lean thinking.

153
Q

What is Lean thinking?

A

Involves an organisation moving towards the elimination of waste in order to develop an operational approach that is faster and more dependable and which produces higher quality products at a lower cost.

154
Q

What is the basic elements of lean philosophy?

A

The basic elements of the lean philosophy are:
* Elimination of “muda” or waste, where waste is any activity that
does not add value
* Kaizen or continuous improvement. While the aim of perfect quality
and no waste may not be achievable straight away the lean belief is
that it can be approached over time.

155
Q

The essence of lean thinking is value what is value determined by?

A

Value is determined by the ultimate
customer and relates to whether a specific product or service meets their
needs at a price they are prepared to pay.
Where costs are incurred on non-value items, then this is deemed waste
and should be eliminated.

156
Q

According to Toyota system what can waste arise as a result of?

A

Unnecessary movements
waiting for for work or materials
Transportation
Processing
Inventory
Correction

157
Q

What are other behaviours which do fit with lean thinking include?

A

Variability
This refers to any variability in the way a process operates which is not
caused by the end customer. This would include employees working at full
speed in the morning only to sit around in the afternoon, or a production line
stopping and starting rather than running smoothly.

Overburdened equipment, facilities or staff
The philosophy suggests that demanding too much of the elements in a
system can be as damaging as asking too little, leading to safety and quality
problems, machine breakdowns and defects.

158
Q

What is the Kaizen approach? What does Kaizen mean?

A

The Kaizen approach directs specific attention to the improvement of
business processes.
The word Kaizen is Japanese for improvement and has become linked to a
business philosophy based on continuous process improvement. The aim is
to set standards and then constantly improve upon them.

159
Q

How is the Kaizen approach used effectively in a business?

A

To be used effectively in a business, it requires the involvement of all
staff, from the most senior to the most junior, and applies to all processes
including purchasing and logistics which involve external parts of the supply
chain. Suggestions for improvement are expected from every member of the
organisation, and in addition to individual suggestions, quality circles are
formed for groups of employees to identify potential improvements.

160
Q

What types of improvements does the Kaizen approach make?

A

The expectation is not radical change, but continued, small incremental
improvements which over time produce significant results in terms of
productivity. Standardisation is a key part of the Kaizen process.

161
Q

What is Six Sigma?

A

Six Sigma is the structured application of tools and techniques on a project
basis to improve quality and minimise defects. It is an approach not just to
production processes but to all aspects of the business.The Six Sigma approach is applied systematically to one particular process at a time as a project and as such may be more attractive to management.

162
Q

The Six Sigma project follows the DMAIC system? What does DMAIC stand for?

A
  • Define the project scope and expectations
  • Measure and benchmark the current performance
  • Analyse the process to identify the root cause of the problem
  • Improve the process using a range of quality tools and ensure
    they work
  • Control the process by tracking performance over time
163
Q

What is value analysis?

A

A cost reduction
technique specifically focused on maintaining value. The value of an item
or a service is measured by how well it performs its function relative to its
cost. So, if two items cost the same, but one performs better, it has a higher
value. In the same way, if two items perform equally but one costs less, the
cheaper item has the higher value.

164
Q

What does value analysis improve?

A

Value analysis is a planned scientific approach to improving the value of a
product or service by offering the same level of functionality at a lower cost.

165
Q

What are the first stage of the value analysis process?

A

The organisation first identifies products or services in areas where costs
are too high, problems have been identified or demand is expected to
become significantly higher (and therefore new economies of scale may
become available).

166
Q

What is the second stage of the value analysis process?

A

The different types of value which a customer requires from the product or
service are then determined. These may be:
* Cost value – cost of producing the product or service.
* Exchange value – the sum of all the attributes which enable them to
swap or charge for the item or service.
* Use value – the attributes which enable it to perform its function.
* Esteem value – the additional premium which the product or service
attracts because of its intrinsic attractiveness to the customer.

167
Q

What is the third stage of VAP?

A

Each aspect of value is considered in turn and multi-disciplinary teams
work together to identify those aspects of the product or service which add
no value to the service but incur cost to provide, and those which can be
achieved at lower cost.

168
Q

What is the fourth stage of VAP?

A

The functions offered by the product are then subject to a process known
as functional analysis. The importance of each function to the customer is
evaluated, along with the costs incurred by the business to provide it. The
current cost of achieving the function is compared to the cost of producing
it at the most minimal level and alternative suggestions about to how close
the gap between the two are discussed.
Solutions may involve eliminating aspects which are little valued or
modifying aspects to make them cheaper to provide

169
Q

What is Total Quality Management (TQM)?

A

TQM has similarities with Six Sigma, which looks to reduce defects, but
TQM, on the other hand, focuses more on internal guidelines and process to
reduce errors, seeing this as the key to improve an organisation’s outputs.

It is an ongoing process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors
in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving
the customer experience, and ensuring that employees are up to speed
with training. Total quality management holds all parties involved in the
production process accountable for the overall quality of the final product or
service.

170
Q

What is the most famous example of Total Quality Management?

A

The most famous example of TQM is Toyota’s implementation of a ‘Kanban’
system. A kanban is a physical signal that creates a chain reaction, resulting
in a specific action. Toyota used this idea to implement its Just In Time (JIT)
inventory process.

171
Q

What are the key principles of Total Quality Management?

A

Its key principles are:
* Good leadership
* Focus on quality
* Putting the customer first
* Error correction and improvement as an on-going process
* Job training

172
Q

What is the Just in time (JIT) system?

A

A JIT system can be defined as a system designed to produce or procure
products or components as they are required for use or by a customer, rather
than to add to inventory.

173
Q

What is JIT production driven by?

A

JIT production is driven by demand for the final product such that a product
is only made on the production line when it is needed by the next process.

174
Q

What is the main five features of a JIT production system?

A
  • Manufacturing cells which group all the equipment used to
    manufacture a given product in the same place to minimise
    materials handling.
  • Multi skilled working so that all workers can carry all the operations
    in the cell.
  • Total quality management – A zero tolerance for defects. If a
    problem is found the whole production line is shut down until it is
    eliminated.
  • Reducing machine set up time and manufacturing lead time to a
    minimum.
  • Carefully selected suppliers and strong supplier relationships - goods
    must be delivered as soon as requested and have zero defects as no
    buffer inventory is held.
175
Q

What does JIT purchasing do?

A

JIT purchasing contracts the time between receipt and usage of an item so
that as far as possible they coincide. Supplies are delivered at exactly the
moment the current inventory runs out so that only a minimum inventory is
held (enough for ½ to 1 day’s use).

176
Q

What are the financial benefits of JIT?

A

-Lower inventory costs
-Low risk of obsolescence
-Reduced set up and manufacturing costs
-Reduced wastage
-Competitive advantage arising from fast response to customers.
-Reduced paperwork.

177
Q

What are the criticisms of JIT?

A

-Environmental campaigners -High levels of transportation for delivery which causes pollution and use of fossil fuels.
-Price volatility-May increase inventory levels to take advantage of price movements.
-Quality volatility- Quality is not ensured.
-Supply volatility

178
Q

What is Activity Based Management?

A

seeks to identify the activities where a business is losing money so that
those activities can either be eliminated or improved to increase profitability.
The costs analysed are employees, equipment, facilities and overheads and
these are allocated to the business processes.

179
Q

What can Activity Based Management be used for?

A

ABM can be used to identify which areas of a business are making a loss
and take steps to improve them or remove them altogether. In this respect,
it is another way of identifying the value or waste in a process and making
changes based on that information.

E.g:Review the costs of a second office – identify the costs associated
with running the office (staff, facilities, overhead) and compare with
sales generated to identify if the revenue makes this worthwhile

180
Q

What is Harmon’s Process Strategy Matrix?

A

Paul Harmon devised a process strategy matrix to help organisations to decide
which services can be automated and/or outsource and which ones require
investment in labour, to identify the most efficient way of delivering them.

181
Q

How can each business be assessed using Harmon’s Process Strategy Matrix?

A

Each business process can be assessed in terms of:
* Its strategic importance to the organisation
* Its complexity and dynamics (how much does it need to change to
deal with changing circumstances)
* Processes which have low strategic importance must be done but
add little value to the products and services. If they are not complex
and mostly static, they can be automated and / or outsourced. If
they are complex processes and subject to lots of changes, they
should be outsourced to gain efficiency as they are not part of the
organisation’s core competences.
* Processes which have high strategic importance are very important
to success and add high value to the business. If the processes are
not complex, they should be automated.
* Processes with both high strategic importance and high complexity
are where organisations should focus most of their efforts – they
should invest time in their processes based on people, as this is
where competitive advantage will be.

182
Q

What happens with processes with both high strategic importance and high complexity? (Harmon’s Process Strategy Matrix)

A

Only processes with both high strategic importance and high complexity
and dynamism should receive intensive efforts in process improvement – all
other processes should either be automated or outsourced to be as efficient
as possible, so that the business can focus on its key areas.

183
Q

What is Servqual?

A

Servqual is a service quality framework designed to improve the customer
experience. It examines the difference between a customer’s expectations
from a service and their perception of the service they received.

184
Q

Under the framework, also known as RATER, service quality us broken down into five aspects?

A
  • Reliability – ability to perform the service dependably and accurately
  • Assurance – ability of staff to inspire confidence and trust
  • Tangibles – standard of physical facilities, equipment, staff
    appearance etc.
  • Empathy – the extent to which caring individualised service is
    provided
  • Responsiveness – willingness to help and respond to customer need
185
Q

For each aspect, organisations should measure and work to minimise the gap between expectation and perception in regard to?

A
  • What customers expect from a service and what management think
    they expect
  • What management believe to be the level of service they should
    deliver and the actual specification of the customer experience
  • The specification of the customer experience and what is actually
    delivered by the organisation
  • What is provided to customers and what they are led to believe will
    be provided
  • How customers perceive the experience and what they expected to
    receive.
186
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Servqual approach?

A

Advantages of a Servqual approach:
* A valuable tool for assessing service quality
* Extensively used and generic so excellent tool for benchmarking
* Can be adapted for use in any service organisation
* Suitable for use in the public sector

Criticisms of the Servqual approach:
* It ignores needs of wider stakeholders by concentrating only on the group surveyed
* Other issues such as improved access to existing services and
equality of service provision are as important as service quality
* Measuring customer expectation can itself lead to increased
expectation and therefore widen the gap!

187
Q

Name three methods used to identify quality control issues?

A
  • Control charts – used to identify when output is drifting beyond
    acceptable levels of variation
  • Pareto diagrams – used to identify the most commonly occurring
    problems
  • Cause and effect diagrams – used to analyse commonly occurring
    problems
188
Q

What is a control chart?

A

A control chart is a graph of a series of
successive observations of a particular step, procedure or operation taken
at regular intervals of time. Each observation is plotted relative to specified
ranges that represent the expected distribution. Only those observations
outside the specified limits are ordinarily regarded as non-random and
worth investigating.

189
Q

What are Pareto diagrams?

A

Observations outside control limits serve as inputs to Pareto diagrams. A
Pareto diagram indicates how frequently each type of failure (defect) occurs.
The Pareto principle states that about 80% of defects or failures can be
explained by 20% of possible defect causes. By identifying the most likely
causes of a problem, efforts can be focussed on those areas first, especially
in situations where checking everything might not be feasible.

190
Q

What are Cause and Effect diagrams?

A

The most frequently occurring problems identified using the Pareto principle
can be further analysed using cause-and-effect diagrams.
A cause-and-effect diagram identifies potential causes of failures or defects.
The causes of the most frequently occurring failure are drawn on the diagram.

191
Q

What does Cause and Effect diagrams lead to?

A

The cause and effect diagram may lead to proposed solutions.