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1
Q

The thermoregulatory system
How to control your body temperature

A

Homeostasis-maintaining a constant internal environment .
Body temp is controlled by the hypothalamus.
1.change in temp stimulates thermoreceptors and action potentials go to the hypothalamus via the sensory neurons
2.hypothalamus sends info via the motor neurons to the effectors.
3.the effector responds e.g shivering or sweating

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2
Q

Average temperature for different animals

A

Humans-36.1-37.2
Dogs-37.9-39.9
Pig-38.7-39.9
Chicken-40.6-43.0

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3
Q

Definition of osmoregulation

A

Physiological process that an organism uses to maintain water balance.

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4
Q

Osmoregulation
What happens when you have a high water content ?

A

You are hydrated
1.pituitary releases little ADH(anti-diuretic hormone).
2.low volume of water reabsorbed to your kidneys.
3.high volume of dilute urine to the bladder .
4.low volume of water into the blood.

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5
Q

Osmoregulation
What happens when you have a low water content ?

A

You become dehydrated
1.pituitary releases lots of ADH.
2.high volume of water reabsorbed by the kidneys
3.low volume of concentrated urine to the bladder.
4.high volume of water into the blood.

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6
Q

Circulatory disease
Von willerbrand disease

A

Caused by blood not clogging probably.
Type 1-least severe
Type 3-most severe
Symptoms
-excessive bleeds/unexplained bleeds
-blood in urine or faeces
No treatment-learn how to manage

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7
Q

Circulatory disorders
Heart murmurs

A

Caused by abnormal blood flow,from an abnormal heart structure.
Symptoms
-coughing
-weakness
-problems exercising
Treatment-depends on murmur some can be treated by change in diet or medication

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8
Q

Circulatory disorder
Mitral valve disease

A

Causes the mitral valve to degenerate meaning it doesn’t close properly,meaning back flow can happen-eventually it collapses causing heart failure
Symptoms
-heart murmur
-shortness of breath
-coughing
Treatment
-drugs to remove fluid
-low sodium diet

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9
Q

The integumentary system
Skin glands

A

Skin glands-different exocrine glands secrete different substances.
Sudoriferous-secrete sweat
Subaceous—secrete sebum-keeps hair and skin lubricated
Ceruminous-specialised sudoriferous glands which secrete ear wax

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10
Q

The integumentary system
Hair

A

Made of keratin
Downy hairs-dense,fine,soft hairs-close to skin-good insulators.
Guard hairs-thicker,longer hairs -make up top coat-prevent injury to the skin

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11
Q

Locomotion

A

Climbing
-apposable limbs
-caritanised nails/claws
-long limbs
Hopping/leaping-elastic tendons,long and powerful rear limbs
Gliding-extra skin,cartilaginous wrists
Running-missing bones,longer limbs
Powered flight-light beak,stream line feathers ,light bones
Swimming-long tail

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12
Q

How does the eye work ?(vision process)

A

1.light rays refract and focus on the pupil as they enter through the cornea
2.iris contracts/relaxes depending on how much light they want in
3.lens refracts light more -focuses on the retina
4.retina respond to light from photoreceptors which travel to the brain via the optic nerve

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13
Q

Photoreceptors in the eye

A

Rods:light sensitive and can function in the dark -single pigment called rhodopsin-only see in grey and not very well.

Cones:function at a higher intensity -allow species to see in colour-pigment called iodopsin-each cone responds to each colour

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14
Q

Adaptations of the eye in predators(carnivores

A

-binocular vision-each eye overlaps-creates a 3D image
-on the front of there face-narrow field vision
-focus-better depth perception

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15
Q

Adaptations of the eye in prey (herbivores)

A

-monocular vision-each eye works independently
-on the side of head-wider field vision
-poor depth perception

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16
Q

Integumentary system-FEATHERS

A

CONTOUR FEATHERS-fuzzy near the bottom to let air in -thick at the top to insulate and add shape.
DOWN FEATHERS-small and fluffy to add insulation
SEMIPLUME FEATHERS-insulate beneath contour feathers
FLIGHT FEATHERS-on wings-no gaps-push air down to keep the bird in the air.
BRISTLE FEATHERS-looks like a whisker-keeps dust out of nose and eyes.
Rachis-white stem in the middle of the feathers
FILOPLUME-between feathers-connected to nerve endings-send info about alignment.

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17
Q

The integumentary system-SKIN STRUCTURE

A

EPIDERMIS-waterproof outer layer-keeps pathogens out of the body-elastic and gives skin it’s colour.
DERMIS-middle layer which contains hair follicles,nerves,blood vessels and glands to regulate body temp.
SUBCUTANEOUS LAYER-bottom layer-made of connective tissue and has a high amount of fat for insulation and shape.

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18
Q

The integumentary system-NAILS,CLAWS AND HOOVES

A

NAILS-nail matrix forms on top of the dermis-root of the nail grows from a thick layer of matrix.

CLAWS AND HOOVES-made of a section of the dermis-covered in a layer of keratinised epithelium.

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19
Q

The integumentary system-HORNS AND ANTLERS

A

ANTLERS-made of bone and become more compact as they grow.

HORNS-cone of keratin which surrounds a mass of bone -rhinos don’t have the bone.

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20
Q

Skeletal disorders-HIP DYSPLASIA

A

SYMPTOMS:limping,pain in groin,loss of motion at the hips.
TREATMENT:surgery-if left untreated they will get arthritis.

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21
Q

Skeletal disorders-OSTEOCHONDRITIS

A

SYMPTOMS:pain,popping and locking,joint weakness
TREATMENT:therapy,stretching and exercises

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22
Q

Skeletal disorders-OSTEOARTHRITIS

A

SYMPTOMS:stiffness and lameness
TREATMENT:prescribed food

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23
Q

Specialised digestive systems-BIRD DIGESTION

A

1.uses tongue to push food back and swallow .
2.food moves down the oesophagus to the crop.
3.passes to the preventriculus-digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid are added
4.food goes to the gizzard where it is mechanically digested
5.small and large intestine join there are two ceca.
6.water is reabsorbed and food is fermented
7.goes out the cloaca

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24
Q

Type of joints

A

FIBROUS-fibrous connective tissue allows no movement-joint is fixed.

CARTILAGINOUS-joints held together by cartilage allowing slight movement.

SYNOVIAL -joints that allow a wide range of movement e.g the ball and socket joint.

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25
Q

Teeth and mouth

A

INCISORS-fine nibbling and cutting and delicate grooming.
CANINES-holding prey and tearing meat
PREMOLARS-shearing flesh and grinding food.
MOLARS-shearing and grinding meat

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26
Q

Teeth and mouth-HERBIVORES

A

-Diastema helps move food around molars.
-incisors-used to cut plant material
-molars continuously grow-worn down by silica in plants.

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27
Q

Teeth and mouth-CARNIVORES

A

CANINES-hold prey and pierce and rip meat.
CARNASSIAL TEETH-shear meat

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28
Q

Teeth and mouth-OMNIVORES

A

INCISORS AND CANINES-cut meat
FLAT MOLARS-grind plant material

Maxillary-top teeth
Mandibular-bottom teeth

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29
Q

Skeletal attachments and functions

A

JOINT-the point at which bones meet allowing movement.
TENDON-attaches muscle to bone enabling movement.
LIGAMENT-connects bone to bone.
MUSCLE-function to produce force and motion.
CARTILAGE-maintains joint motion and cushions bone on impact.

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30
Q

Synovial joint structure

A

HYALINE CARTILAGE-reduces friction and is a shock absorber
LIGAMENT-bone to bone (blob)
TENDON-muscle to bone
SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE-produces synovial fluid.
SYNOVIAL FLUID-lubricates the joint and has nutrition for the hyaline cartilage.
FIBROUS JOINT CAPSULE-envelope around the synovial joint offering protection.

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31
Q

Structure and functions of bones

A

LONG BONE-longer than wide-act as levers-aid locomotion and support .
SHORT BONE-shape is equal dimensions-absorbs impact,e.g bones in feet or paws.
FLAT BONES-strong flat plates of bone-protect organs-muscles attach to them.
SESOMOID BONE-short irregular bones,embedded into tendons/reduce friction.
IRREGULAR BONES-odd shaped-protection,support,anchor point-e.g bones of the vertebral column.

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32
Q

Mono gastric digestion

A

1.food enters mouth-mechanically brocken down by teeth and tongue.
2.saliva is added to start chemical digestion.
3.food is swallowed and moved down the oesophagus to the stomach.
4.hydrochloric acid and enzymes are added to break food into chyme.
5.it enters the duodenum and bile emulsifies fat and neutralises stomach acid.
6.in the jejunum and ileum nutrients are absorbed and taken to cells to be stored.
7.large intestine-water is absorbed through villi.
8.waste stored in rectum until it leaves the body via the anus.

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33
Q

Nutrients groups

A

PROTEIN-growth and repair
CARBOHYDRATES-supply energy to cells
LIPIDS(FATS)-supply and store energy and insulate and cushion organs
VITAMINS-promote specific chemical reactions
MINERALS-growth and maintenance of bones and teeth
Fibre-increase bulk and water to regulate normal bowel function
WATER-50-70%of body -helps with chemical transport

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34
Q

Nervous system-responding to the environment

A

1.receptors detect a stimulus
2.impulses go from the sensory neurons to the spinal cords
3.CNS takes in info -takes it to the brain to initiate a response
4.impulses from the CNS go along the motor neurons to the effector
5. Effector generates a response (glands or tissues)

35
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

-dilate pupils
-salivary glands-inhibit salivation
-accelerated heartbeat
-lungs-bronchi dilate
-stomach inhibits digestion
-liver stimulates glucose release
-intestines inhibit peristalsis and secretion
-relaxes bladder
-kidneys?

36
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

-constricts pupils
-salivary glands-stimulate salivation
-slows heartbeat
-lungs constrict bronchi
-stomach stimulates digestion
-liver stimulates bile release
-intestines stimulates peristalsis and secretion
-contracts bladder

37
Q

Functions of the skeleton

A

1.support:supports soft tissue and provides point of attachment for most skeletal muscles.
2.protection:reduces risk of injury-mechanical protection for the body’s organs
3.movement:muscles are attached to bone-muscle contracts-bone moves
4.blood production:red blood cells for oxygen and white for fighting infection
5.storage of minerals:bones store minerals

38
Q

Axial and appendicular skeleton

A

AXIAL SKELETON-make up the head and trunk of the body.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON-bones that support the trunk-appendage bones.

39
Q

Neurological disorders

A

DEGENERATIVE MYELOPATHY-disease that effects the spinal cord in older dogs-degenerative (gets worse over time)-lack of coordination and start to wobble.

LISTERIOSIS-bacterial infection ,can cause swelling in the brain.
SYMPTOMS:facial paralysis,constant salivation

40
Q

Structure and functions of blood

A

RED BLOOD CELLS:flattened disk shaped,small and flexible-deliver oxygen carries back carbon dioxide-no nucleus for more haemoglobin.

WHITE BLOOD CELLS:defend body from disease-have B lymphocytes that make antibodies and T lymphocytes-initiate a immune response.

PLATELETS:make up rest of the blood-repair the body after injury by stopping bleeding.

PLASMA:pale straw coloured liquid-helps material transport -55% of the body

41
Q

Sense receptors

A

AUDITORY:hairs in the inner ear vibrate according to the pitch or volume of sound-send impulses to auditory nerves to the brain.
VISUAL:photoreceptors in the retinal layer of the eye respond to light.
SOMATOSENSORY:Skin has a variety of receptors which respond to temperature,touch or pressure .
OLFACTORY:receptors in the nasal cavity respond to odour molecules in the air.
GUSTATORY:tongue contains papille ,which have taste buds -responds to chemicals in your food.

42
Q

Receptors in sense organs

A

Receptors-detect a change in stimulus.
CHEMORECEPTORS:detect the change in chemicals.
THERMORECEPTORS:detect the change in temperature.
MECHANORECEPTORS:detect a mechanical change in the environment.
PHOTORECEPTORS:detect light.

43
Q

The structure of the eye

A

EYELID:fold of skin that covers the eye-protection.
CORNEA:transparent covering on the eye-protection.
SCLERA:white part of the eye-protection and support.
RETINA:at the back of the eye-allows you to see light via light rays.
CHOROID:blood vessels with black pigment-nourishing the eye.
IRIS:muscle around the pupil-controls how much light enters the eye.
PUPIL:middle of eye-allows light to enter the eye.
LENS:transparent-focuses light onto the retina.
CILIARY BODY:attached to underside of lens-produces aqueous humour and focusing.
VITREOUS HUMOUR:behind lens-gives eyeball it’s shape.
AQUEOUS HUMOUR:behind the cornea-keeps rounded shape-nutrients.
LATERAL RECTUS MUSCLES:orientate the pupil away from the centre of the body.
MEDIAL RECTUS MUSCLE:orientate pupil towards the centre of the body.
FOVEA:located in the macula-sharp central vision.

44
Q

Avian respiratory system

A

1.INHALATION:air passes through the larynx,trachea and into the posterior air sacs.
2.EXHALATION:air moves from air sacs to the lungs via the ventrobronchi and dorsalbornchi.
3.INHALATION:air moves from the lungs to the cranial air sacs.
4.EXHALATION:air moves from the cranial air sacs through the syrinx,trachea and out the nares.

45
Q

AVIAN vs mammalian respiratory system

A

AVIANS
.nares are there nostrils.
.the syrinx is used for vocalisation instead of the larynx.
.No diaphragm-pressure moves and moves air.
.air capillaries instead of alveoli for gaseous exchange.

46
Q

The circulatory system:HEART

A

1.deoxygenated blood goes into the heart via the the superior vena cava.
2.blood goes into the right atrium and passes through the tricuspid valve.
3.deoxygenated blood goes into the right ventricle and passes through the pulmonary valve.
4.blood goes out of the heart and into the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
5.oxygenated blood goes back into the heart via the pulmonary vein.
6.oxygenated blood passes into the left atrium and passes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle.
7.oxygenated blood passes through the aortic valve where blood is taken out of the heart to the body via the aorta.
Two chambers:atria and ventricles.

47
Q

Definition of a circulatory system

A

Circulating blood and delivering oxygen and nutrients and getting rid of waste products.

48
Q

The circulatory system:arteries,veins and capillaries

A

ARTERIES:carry oxygenated blood at high pressure from the heart to the rest of the body.
VEINS:carry deoxygenated blood at lower pressure from the body back to the heart.
CAPILLARIES:thin wall for compounds the exchange.

49
Q

The cardiac cycle -left side of the heart

A

1.Blood drains into the left atrium from the lungs along the pulmonary vein.
2.raising blood pressure forces the tricuspid valve to open.
3.contractions of the left atrial muscle forces more blood through the valve .
4.when muscle contraction is over,the left ventricular muscle starts to contract (ventricular systole)
5.forces the tricuspid valve to open and close -blood leaves the left ventricle along the aorta.

50
Q

The cardiac cycle-HEARTBEAT

A

1.SINOATRIAL NODE-(natural pacemaker)-impulses to the atria-causing it to contract -blood goes into the ventricle,setting the hearts rhythm and rate.
2.ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE-detects impulses from the atria and redirects it to the bundle of HIS-causing delay-slows electrical impulses allowing the atria to contract before the ventricle .
3.Bundle of HIS-group of fibres in the septum-impulses travel through to the base of the ventricle .
4.PURKINJE FIBRES -impulses from the bundle of HIS reach the pukinje fibres causing the ventricles to contract.

51
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Respiration with oxygen.
Glucose+oxygen—->carbon dioxide +water+energy

52
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Respiration with the lack of oxygen.
glucose (broken down to)—->lactic acid +energy

53
Q

homeostasis and respiration

A

To keep a constant internal environment.
BLOOD OXYGEN INCREASED
-heart rate decreases
-respiratory rate decreases
-respiratory volume decreases
BLOOD CARBON DIOXIDE INCREASE
-heart rate increases
-respiratory rate increases
-respiratory volume increases

54
Q

Oxygen debt in respiration

A

.Big increase in exercise-not enough oxygen aerobically so anaerobic respiration can happen causing a build up of lactic acid.
.Lack of oxygen means an oxygen dept occurs.
.After anaerobic respiration has stopped you breath deeper -take in more oxygen to get rid of lactic acid build up.

55
Q

The lymphatic system

A

-helps the body fight infection
LYMPH NODES:found by lymph vessels,filter lymph to get rid of toxins,waste and pathogens.
LYMPH VESSELS:act like veins and capillaries -transport the lymph
THYMUS:T-cells mature which destroy virus-infected cells and instruct other cells to target infection.
LYMPH COMPOSITION:health and diet of the animal.
SPLEEN:controls erythrocyte levels in the blood ,B-cells mature and secrete antibodies.
LYMPH ORGANS:thymus+spleen-directly connected to the lymphatic system.

56
Q

Functions of the lymphatic system

A

.filter-remove waste and toxins
.produces and transports antibodies and lymphocytes
.transport digested fat

57
Q

Adaptations:horse,rabbit,Emu and crocodile

A

HORSE:tail for direction,long neck for grooming,large lungs-large lung captivity.
RABBIT:curved spine to help it hop,short front legs for digging,long hinde legs -high hop
EMU:lightweight beak,long solid bones,long neck-see predators,strong legs to run
CROCODILE:long tail for direction,compact limbs can easily tuck them in and can run on land.

58
Q

Adaptations:giraffe,birds,frog and a whale

A

GIRAFFE:long necks -can see predators,strong leg bones,hooves to support and protect
BIRDS:fused vertebrae for stability,beak is light,fused collar bone,bones are lightweight
FROG:longer back limbs-jump higher,big eye sockets -help push food down,pelvis can slide up and down-helps with jumping
WHALE:large jaw,collapsible lungs for diving,little arms-water resistant ,large tail for moment and direction

59
Q

The nervous system

A

This involves the brain and spinal cord
SPINAL CORD: long bundle of nerves branches out between the vertebrae-connecting the brain to the peripheral nervous system.
CNS is surrounded by fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CBF)
CNS separated from the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier (blood vessels that line the capillaries)-protection from toxins and pathogens

60
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

Nerves that connect the spinal cord to the rest of the body.
Somatic nervous system -detects and responds to stimuli outside the body.
Receptors are stimulated and signals are sent to the CNS

61
Q

Regulation of blood glucose

A

HIGH BLOOD SUGAR:
1.The pancreas increases insulin(released by beta cells in the pancreas)and decreases glucagon.
2.Insulin causes muscle and liver cells to remove glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen.
3.tissue cells store glycogen.

LOW BLOOD SUGAR:
1.pancreas decreases secretion of insulin and increases secretion of glucagon(released by alpha cells in the pancreas ).
2.glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and release it into the blood

62
Q

Ultrafiltration process in nephrons

A

.occurs in the renal capsule
1.blood first enters via the renal artery and flows through many capillaries at high pressure.
2.specialised cells called podocytes make up the basement membrane leaving small gaps.
3.here small molecules and ions are squeezed out of the blood by pressure and into the nephron
4.larger molecules e.g protein stay in the blood.

63
Q

Nephrons-selective reabsorption

A

.Larger molecules may be reabsorbed by endocytosis
.loop of henle helps with the reabsorption of water and salt
Anti-diuretic hormone(ADH) - increases the amount of water reabsorbed in the kidneys-released by the pituitary gland to maintain homeostasis

64
Q

The cardiac cycle:DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

A

1.systemic circuit carries blood around the body-deliver oxygen-returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
2.broken down further-cardiac cycle-repeats mechanical and electrical events in two phases
3.Diastole-relaxation phase,blood pressure is at its lowest.
4.systole-contraction phase,blood pressure rises
5.frequency of the cardiac cycle is monitored by your heart rate .

65
Q

Structure of the eye

A

OPTIC DISC- blind spot(no photoreceptors)optic nerves leave the eye.
OPTIC NERVE-bundle of fibres-information from the retina and fovea to the brain

66
Q

Oral cavity adaptations

A

HERBIVORE DENTITION-dental pad instead of upper incisors,grasp plants with tongue and break it of using lower incisors and their dental pad-mix food with saliva
CARNIVORE DENTITION-canines to rip meat,carnassial teeth for shearing meat-can’t digest cellulose as they lack the enzyme cellulase.
ORAL CAVITY OF A BIRD-beaks are made of bone ,keratin and blood vessels -grows continuously

67
Q

Nephrons:urine formation

A

Substances not reabsorbed travel as urine along the nephron to the collecting ducts-waste travels to the bladder

68
Q

Nephrons:osmoregulation

A

Body’s water content is controlled by the kidneys.

69
Q

Structure of nephrons

A

-the glomerulus is a “knot” of capillaries
-the renal(bowman’s)capsule collects the filtrate from the glomerulus
-Tubules allow transportation of filtrate to and from the loop of henle
-the collecting duct collects urine and passes to the ureter

70
Q

Mammalian respiratory system

A

LARYNX-top of the trachea-stops food going into the trachea whilst breathing.
PHARYNX-back of throat-carries air food and fluid down the nose and mouth.
ALVEOLI-tiny pockets in lungs-Rich supply of blood-where gaseous exchange happens
LUNGS-main respiratory organ in vertebrates
TRACHEA-tube connecting the pharynx and the larynx to the lungs
BRONCHIOLES-smaller airways-connecting the bronchi to the alveoli
BRONCHI-distributes air -main airway leading to the lungs

71
Q

Eye-ciliary body

A

Underside of the lens.
Produces aqueous humour to nourish the eye.
Helps shape the lens.

72
Q

Eye-iris

A

Muscle around the pupil.
Gives eye its colour.
Controls how much light enters the eye by muscle contractions.

73
Q

Eye-lens

A

Transparent,flexible,changes shape.
Focuses light onto the retina.

74
Q

Eye-pupil

A

Hoke in the middle of the eye.
Allows light to enter the eye.

75
Q

Eye-Cornea

A

Transparent covering on the eye and helps bend lights rays that enter the eye.

76
Q

Eye-sclera

A

White part of the eye.
Made of collagen fibres.
Protection and support.

77
Q

Eye-Choroid

A

Blood vessel with black pigment.
Absorbs light and nourishes the eye.

78
Q

Eye-Retina

A

Layer of photoreceptors at the back of the eye (rods and cones)detect light

79
Q

Eye-fovea

A

High density of cone cells that detect colour-gives sharp vision.

80
Q

Eye-Optic fibres

A

Bundle of fibres which send electrical impulses from the retina to the brain.

81
Q

Avian reproductive system:FEMALES

A

They reach sexual maturity and the ovary and oviduct degenerate leave one functioning.
The oviduct consists of five parts:
Infundibulum-receives egg and where fertilisation takes place.
Magnum-secretes the albumen(white)
Isthmus-adds the shell membrane
Uterus-secretes the shell and shell pigment
Cloaca-where the egg and waste products pass out.

82
Q

Avian reproductive system:MALE

A

Phallus(penis)-copulatory organ which fills fills with lymph during mating allowing semen to be deposited into the female.
Papillae-organ in the wall of the cloaca that emits semen into female.
Androgen-make sex hormones produced in the testes.Also controls comb length.
Epididymis-where sperm is stored.
Vas deferens-transport sperm.

83
Q

Avian reproductive system :BATTLE OF THE SEXES

A

Females have envolved to make it more difficult to become impregnated by males.
Males have evolved to break the defence.

84
Q

Avian reproductive system:THE CLOACA KISS

A

Some don’t have a phallus so press there cloacas together allowing eggs to fertilise.

Animal Biology (1 decks)

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