Women Civil Rights Flashcards
Impact of Civil War on Women in work
Briefly offered opportunity for married women to work outside home.
Usually agricultural work in rural areas
Many worked as nurses, saw as extension of domestic duties of the home.
Women and Children in Workplace
1900- 4 million children working
1907- 30 states abolished child labour as a result of pressure from women’s groups
Growth of Industry effect on women
Civil war acted as catalyst in industrialisation.
By 1870- 13% unmarried women worked in domestic occupations or factories.
Married women did not change, barred from working outside house by policies of employers or state legislation.
Why were women angry at the 15th Amendment?
1870- campaigners for women’s suffrage angry that this right was not extended to include gender.
What precipitated the change in society for women in work?
Changing economy- development of manufacturing industry, big business and urbanisation.
Changing lifestyle of middle class married women- increasing availability of consumer goods that transformed home life.
Better education prospects
Separate Spheres
men and women, especially of the middle class, should have different roles in society: women as wives, mothers, and homemakers; men as breadwinners and participants in business and politics
% of women in total workforce in 1900?
17% of total workforce
What could unmarried women do in 1890s?
With a high school education they could go into offices of business enterprises, with the invention of typewriter and telephone.
How much could a women earn in clerical jobs?
$7 a week
How many women were working as teachers, secretaries, librarians and telephone operators in 1900 vs 1920?
1900- 949,000
1920- 3.4 million
What was the downside to this work though?
The expectation was at some point these women would marry and leave the workforce
Who replaced women in the factories as they worked white-collar jobs?
Young immigrant women- European, Hispanic, AA.
Used as cheap, unskilled workers, unprotected by legislation.
How many hours did it take immigrant female factory workers to earn $5?
70 hours
Change in home life of middle-class married women
Moved into suburbs bc of city transport systems
Houses had indoor plumbing, central heating, refrigerators, washing machines and commercial laundries.
Liberated the better off married women from daily domestic grind.
Birth rate in 1900 compared to 1850 in native white Americans?
1850- 5.42 children
1900- 3.56
Farming and immigrant families continued to be large
Did women go into work because of less strain in the house from housework and children?
No- less time spent on chores meant more time was available to spend with family and supporting child’s education.
Rise in divorce rate, 1880 and 1900
1880- 1 in 21
1900- 1 in 12
How many women made up high school graduates in 1900?
Half were female
Hull House, Chicago
1889- established by Jane Addams
Social centre to support the settlement of newly arrived immigrant families
Addams and fellow workers came to act as influential pressure group using politicians to address social issues, predominantly problem of slum housing
Temperance
Advocacy of drinking in moderation and avoidance of excess
Temperance for women movement
Women relentlessly demanded reform and showed themselves as a force to be reckoned with.
Saw it as threatening and undermining home and family life
Women’s Crusade
1873- first mass movement of US women demanding prohibition of the sale of alcohol
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
1874 by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton- mainly middle-class organisation partly to promote the cause of women’s suffrage but also to combat the evils of excessive drinking.
How many branches of the WCTU were there by the end of the 19th century?
7,000 in 52 states
What did Women’s Crusade and the WCTU do?
Active protest.
Thousands of women in Ohio took to the streets in 1873, they successfully closed the saloons and liquor outlets.
National Consumers’ League (NCL)
Pressure group established in 1899 by group of women associated with Hull House.
Focused attention on securing fair working conditions for women and children.
Pressure exerted by NCL
Pressure for the improvement in wages of female sales clerks
Pressure for protective legislation for women and children + improved work conditions
Pressure on state govt. to provide aid for mothers and improve facilities for kids + adolescents
National Association of Colored Women (NACW)
1896- led by educated black women. Focused on the achievement o the vote for women but also campaigned to stop lynching and discrimination and to improve educational opportunities
Membership of NACW in 1915 and 1918
1915- 50,000
1918- 300,000
What was the impact of black women’s clubs?
More directly concerned with their rights and equality.
Suffered from racial prejudice on top of gender discrimination.
Heightened concern for acquisition of civil rights as well as social issues.
Who spearheaded the campaign for the vote between 1865-1914?
Mainly educated, white middle-class women
Examples of mid-19th century feminists
Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B Anthony, Lucy Stone
When did the campaign for women’s right begin?
1848- when Stanton and Mott founded the Women’s Rights Convention at Seneca Falls
American Women Suffrage Association (AWSA)
Founded 1869 by Lucy Stone.
Pledged to securing vote for AA men whilst adopting moderate approach to achieving vote for women at state level
National Women’s Suffrage Association (NWSA)
Founded 1869 by Stanton and Anthony.
Campaigned more aggressively for a federal constitutional amendment recognising the right of women to vote.
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)
1890- merger of AWSA and NWSA
NAWSA membership in 1905 and 1915
Lack of support from the mainstream of women
1905-17,000 members nationally
1915-100,000
Represented only half of number of women who were actively involved with temperance
Congressional Union for Women’s Suffrage
Radical wing of NAWSA which broke away in 1913, led by Alice Paul
Became National Women’s Party in 1917
Replicated methods of British suffragettes- mass demonstrations, e.g. picketed the White House daily
NAWSA activities
1900- Carrie Chapman Catt replaced Anthony as President
Organised moderate campaign of lobbying politicians, distributing leaflets, holding marches and public meetings
Focused on state level
NAWSA success at state level
By 1918, 20 states had given women the right to vote in state election (e.g. California, New York and Texas)
Nineteenth Amendment
The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote.
Problems of NAWSA
Largely a white-middle class organisation
Problems of women’s movement between 1865-1914
Splintered into several areas of social action
Interest of women in political matters was very limited
What did WW1 do for women in work?
Increased demand for labour and resulted in many married women replacing men who went to fight.
Still paid less than men they replaced.
How many women served in US navy as nurses, clerical workers and telephone operators?
11,000
How many women worked in industry between 1917 and 1918?
1 million
What happened to women in work when men returned home from the war?
Expectation that women were to return to the home when the men returned
Expected and accepted by majority of married women.
However must’ve widened horizons of unmarried women.
Number of working class, married women in workforce increase during the 1920s?
From 22.8 to 28.8%
2 million increase
Union activity in 1920s by women
1929- violent strike in North Carolina led to death of 6 women
Increase membership of women in unions during the 1930s
265,000 to 800,000
How many Americans were opposed to women working in 1936?
82% suggested a Gallup poll
Great Depression effect on women in work?
Significant- opportunities for women quickly receded.
Those in work expected to give them up to make way for men.
How many married women were working in 1930?
12%
New Deal for Women
New Deal was string of policies intended to stimulate the economy and support those who were vulnerable.
Policies biased towards male breadwinner and did little to raise self-esteem and aspiration of women.
When women benefitted, not a result of legislation or govt action, but action intended to address wider social and economic issues.
Social Security Act
1935- helped to alleviate family stress by introducing welfare benefits for poor families. Benefitted married women, not designed specifically for them.
Aid to Dependent Children
1935- helped women with young families who were unable to work and where no male head. Largely given to white women. Humiliating process.
The Fair Labour Standards Act
1938- set new minimum wage levels. Women still earned less than men in the same job.
E.g. female teacher earned 20% less than male counterpart in 1939.
Jeannette Rankin of Montana
First women to take a seat in House of Representatives in 1917
Problems of 19th Amendment
Majority of married women voted as their husbands did and showed little interest in the idea that the vote empowered them.
Poor, working-class women had little time for political interest due to their daily life
AA women unable to take advantage due to racial discrimination.
How many women entered office by 1939?
9
Nellie Taylor Ross became first female director of the mint
Florence Allen became first woman judge on US Circuit of Appeals
Eleanor Roosevelt as a role model
Successful combined role of wife and mother
Actively supported women’s rights, civil rights for AA and political support for the ND policies of her husband.
Joined League of Women Voters and Women’s Trade Union League before becoming First Lady
Active in Democrat Party- staunch support of anti-lynching, even when President was lukewarm
Did the right to vote really empower women after 1919?
Minority of educated middle-class women, it represented a triumph.
Failed to make further substantial change because they were divided as to how the vote could best be used to improve conditions for women and increase opportunities to them.
When did the campaign for an Equal Rights Amendment start?
1923
Woman’s Bureau
Established in the Department of Labour in 1920.
Very limited in what it achieved, since focus was on striving to improve working conditions and unfair treatment at work.
Met resistance from employers and male labour unions.
Shepard-Towner Act
1921-made funds available for maternity and infant health education.
Funding terminated in 1929
Limited in that the medical profession resisted the provision of medical care free of charge
Flappers
Young women of the 1920s that behaved and dressed in a radical fashion
Did the flappers represent a social revolution?
No- small group of upper- or middle-class women who wanted to rebel, only unifying aspect.
The Comstock Laws
1873- made the sale, advertisement and distribution of contraceptives illegal.
Now ‘under the counter’ and expensive, poor families couldn’t access
When did Margaret Sanger start campaigning about birth control?
1912 with newspaper articles giving contraceptive advice to women in defiance of the Comstock laws
When was Sanger’s first birth control clinic opened and where?
Brooklyn, New York in 1916.
American Birth Control League (ABCL)
1921- purpose was to educate through the distribution of written materials, conferences and lectures.
When was Sanger’s first legal birth control clinic opened and with the help of who?
1923, with financial backing from John D Rockefeller
How many members did the ABCL have by 1924?
27,500 but only 10 branches in 8 states
When were the Comstock Laws effectively ended?
1938- however, state legislatures enforced their own laws on contraception
Eighteenth Amendment
a 1917 amendment to the United States Constitution that made it illegal to sell alcoholic drinks
What does prohibition and its ratification show about female pressure groups?
Fundamental divisions that existed in women’s groups
Indicative of strength and influence of the female voice when focussed on issues identifiable with their traditional ‘sphere’
In determining the influence of women in the enactment of prohibition legislation, it is important to take into consideration…
The significance of women’s organisations and their leadership
The power of home protection as a justification for action by women
Impact of alliances made with other groups with similar goals
Social, political and economic context
Women’s Christian Temperance Union contribution to 18th amendment
Dominated the campaign from 1874, with powerful leadership Frances Willard.
Argument for promoting temperance firmly rooted in the protection of the home.
Anti-Saloon League
1893- became main organisation lobbying for Prohibition.
Non-partisan organisation
Aligned itself with the WCTU after Willards’ death
By 1913 successful combo of lobbying tactics and joint campaigns had resulted in prohibition laws in 9 states
How many states had prohibition laws by 1917?
26
Other reasons 18th amendment was passed?
Nativism
Outbreak of WW1 = increased hostility towards German immigrant origin, many major breweries were owned by Germans.
The ‘wets’ (opposition to prohibition) failed to unite and organise themselves. Included brewery owners failing to make saloons more salubrious
What does the anti-prohibition campaign reveal about the women movement?
The event that women were deeply and bitterly divided in how to achieve their priorities and how effectively the same arguments and methods could be used to achieve opposing goals
Molly Pitcher Club
Formed in 1922 by M. Louise Gross.
Formed in an effort to organise a female protest movement against the introduction of prohibition.
Impact of Molly Pitcher Club
Limited.
Remained a localised response in NY
Arguments based on claim that prohibition limited personal freedom, did not have same powerful appeal as the threat to home and family life
What did prohibition lead to?
New culture of violence and immortality, which was perceived as a threat to home and family by women
Racketeering and speakeasies, for example
Law enforcement were paralysed
Women’s Organisation for National Prohibition Reform (WONPR)
Formed in 1929, under Pauline Sabin.
Leadership was very powerful and well-organised that it quickly capitalised on women’s disillusionment with prohibition to add weight to the drive for repeal.
However WONPR presented an image of wealth and privilege that didn’t go unnoticed.
Membership of WONPR in 1931?
1.5 million members nationwide- biggest organisation pressing for repeal.
Why was WONPR successful in achieving it goal?
Underpinned rationale in its campaign, protection of the home and family > protection of personal freedom.
Leadership and core membership was upper class and high organised at state and national level (Sabin + other core members had husbands in AAPA)
Effectively harnessed the same arguments and methods used by WCTU and ASL to secure prohibition, to bring about its repeal.
Non-partisan and didn’t claim ant strong religious affiliation or philosophy, broadened appeal
The Association Against the Prohibition Amendment (AAPA)
1918- opposed the passage of prohibition, largely made up of wealthy businessmen and bankers
What did the campaigns for prohibition and then its repeal achieve for women?
Clearly demonstrated women were a force to be reckoned with in bringing about change when they were well-led, highly organised.
Divisions that existed between women exemplifies differences that continued to impede the formation of united women’s movement
WCTU, ASL and WONPR did nothing to further women’s rights or improve working class and poor women’s position
Shows the protection of the home continued to be the most powerful cause
How many women were working in 1945 than 1940?
5 million increase between 1940 and 1945 (many of these were married)
How many women join the armed forces during WW2?
350,000
What continued from WW1?
The huge contribution of women to the war effort was represented by the media as a short-term extension of their domestic role.
How many women wanted to stay in employment following WW2?
75%- they also showed they could take care of their homes and children as well as work
What happened to working women in the immediate aftermath of WW2?
They were laid off to make way for the returning soldiers.
Clear indication that the concept of ‘separate spheres’ had certainly not been eradicated.
Media’s important role in reinforcing ‘separate spheres’
Magazines portrayed domesticity as the ultimate and most rewarding role for American women.
Dr Benjamin Spock’s book, Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946) emphasised the important role of mothers in the home. Sold 23 million copies over the next 30 years.
Any sign of instability in the family was blamed by the media on married women trying to fulfil the dual role of wife and mother with that of employee.
Divorce rate in 1940 and 1946
1940- 10.2%
1946-18.2%
What else were women blamed for?
The rise in juvenile delinquency.
Women accused of deserting their homes and abdicating their responsibilities.
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act( GI Bill of Rights) and the outcome of it?
1944- established the right of ex-servicemen to access higher education and provided funding to enable this to happen.
Resulted in massive increase in the number of men entering colleges and universities after the war.
Increase in enrolment at University of Indiana
4,500 to 10,300
How did this effect women?
Although more women were entering higher education, the number of men was increasing at a much faster rate.
Knock-on effect on admission to professional positions.
Women made very little headway in the post-war years.
Increased number of men in professional positions in the post-war years?
Increased by 40%
Social Work in post war years?
Traditionally middle-class women.
Taken over by male university students and graduates undertaking research into social issues.
How many working women were there in 1960 compared to 1940?
Twice as many.
40% of all women over 16 years were working and 30% of women workers were married.
Working mothers in 1940 and 1960
1940- 1.5 million
1960- 6.6 million
The change in female employment in the 1960s
Increase in the number of well-educated wives entering the workforce.
Idea of second income was becoming acceptable.
Tendency for women over 35 to go out and work when children were growing up and their maternal role was contracting.
Increase in the number of well-educated wives entering the workforce
By 1964, 42% of married women in the workplace were from household where the male income was in the $7,000-$10,000 bracket.
37% of women came from homes where male earnings were below $3,000 per annum.
Change in economy during the 1950’s
The service industry overtook manufacturing in generating the majority of the national income.
Such an economy became dependent on female labour, in part because it was cheaper and consequently expanded profit margins.
How did the ‘Space Race’ help women in work?
The US recognised the need to harness all its talent an abilities- female as well as male.
Marked recognition of what women could offer and resulted in the creation of greater opportunities in high education.
Average number of children in 1950, 1957 and 1960?
1950- 3.09
1957-3.77
1960-3.65
The age of young people marrying in 1950?
Was at its lowest.
Median age for men was 22.8 years; median age for women was 20.3 years
Opportunities that a second income provided
Survey in Illinois in the late 60s showed that middle-class families with a second wage spent 45% more on gifts and recreation, 95% more on restaurant meals and 25% more on household goods than those relying solely on a paternal income.
How did surveys contradict the assertion that working mothers hurt the family?
Better-off families.
Daughters of working mothers in the 50s and 60s were more likely to name their mothers as the person they admired the most, unlike girls whose mothers stayed at home.
Grew up with higher expectations for themselves.
What increased in the 1970s for women?
Number of single women in the workforce.
Why can the 1960s been seen as a turning point in the position and role of women?
The growing tendency for middle-class and some working-class women to marry later and produce fewer children; more career driven.
What did a group of young feminists do in January 1968?
Demonstrated their rejection of traditional womanhood in a ceremony of sorts in the national military cemetery at Arlington, Virginia.
What did this ‘ceremony’ involve?
The ritual burying of what they saw to be the weak, submissive and dependent woman, so long admired. This was followed by a march on Congress to demonstrate the war in Vietnam.
What were the new emerging group of women focused on?
Pursuing of their rights and prepared to challenge robustly the accepted status of women in American society.
What was this emergence of ‘new’ feminism in response to? [3]
The spirit of age (black power and militancy).
The war in Vietnam.
Failure of govt to response positively to the demands for equal rights and particularly for equal pay.
Why did government not pursue female rights?
They had no reason to court the female vote. It presented no great threat to their political positions since women were not United in pursuit of specifically female goals and, therefore, did not vote ‘en bloc’.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
Federal agency with the responsibility of ensuring that the terms of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Equal Pay Act are followed, and to deal with complaints about the failure of employers to observe these.
What was the mixed message of the commission on the status of women?
On one hand, the resulting Equal Pay Act embodied the principle of equal pay for women.
On the other hand, the commission also promoted special training for young women for marriage and motherhood.
What was the Commission on the Status of Women therefore indicative of?
Women were first and foremost wives and mothers.
Equal Pay Act
1963- stated that there should be no discrimination in the pay of men and women in situations where they are undertaking the same work.
Commission on the Status of Women
Commission appointed by President Kennedy in 1961.
What did Kennedy refuse to respond to?
Refused to respond to the pressure by Margaret Sanger to recognise the need for provision of birth control to be the responsibility of government.
Was the EEOC successful?
No- it failed to satisfy sufficiently the demands of feminists for equality.
What was the result of the failure of the EEOC?
Radical feminists (for the most part young, educated women) began to campaign more forcefully for women’s rights.
What was one of the noticeable characteristics of the emerging ‘new’ feminism in the 1960s?
Was its total rejection of the protection of home and family as its reason for action.
What can be a reason for the radical reaction of women?
Inspired by the plethora of books and propaganda that emerged on the subject of women’s liberation from the ‘separate sphere’ in the 1960s.
What’s an example of one of these writers and her books?
Betty Friedan and ‘The Feminine Mystique’ (1963)
What did Betty Friedan explain in her 1963 book?
She argued that married women were yearning to escape from their ‘comfortable concentration camps’ (suburban homes) in order to discover their own identities. She urged them to adopt a ‘new life plan’, playing a role in the public sector.
Why was Friedan pivotal in instigating the ‘new’ feminist movement?
Her book challenged existing social attitudes to women and was successful, amongst mainly middle-class women, in preparing the way for ideological change about their position in society.
When was the National Organisation for Women (NOW) formed?
1966
Who formed NOW?
Betty Friedan and other activists
What was NOW’s purpose?
To press for equality using all the available means of protest- lobbying members of the US Senate, filing lawsuits against discrimination and generally seeking to gain the support of public opinion.
What boosted women’s confidence to protest effectively?
Involvement in civil rights protests and in the anti-Vietnam War campaigns
Which word entered the vocabulary of women in the ‘new’ feminist movement?
Sexism- descriptive of another aspect of discrimination
Why were feminists slow to accept the emergence of the contraceptive pill?
Were concerned with the risks, which some critics in the medical profession claimed, to the health of women.
What did feminists do about the contraceptive pill?
Act as a pressure group to bring about more research and modifications to the product that was released in the late 1960s.
What was NOW like by 1968?
More aggressive and passionate in pursuit of its objectives- undoubtedly a reflection of Friedan’s own personality and style.
What caused NOW to lose a lot of support?
It’s action to press for the right of women to abortion.
What group did Friedan co-found in 1969?
The National Organisation for the Repeal of the Abortion Laws (NARAL)
What did NARAL do for the feminism movement?
Divided it more, especially between these feminists and those women upholding traditional values.
What did NARAL help create?
Anti-feminism becoming a potent force which, by the 1970s, was also commanding political support.
What can be argued about women in politics between 1941-69?
The influence of women on the political scene diminished and that the apparent gains of the New Deal period were lost or eroded.
What was it like for women in Congress between 1941-69?
Increased very slowly, by 1969 there were only 11 and not all of these actively promoted women’s rights, couldn’t reply on ‘inside support.
What role was becoming male dominated that was once women’s?
Social workers
Why were men dominating industries which once women did?
As in the post-war years education reforms favoured returning soldiers and the number of men in high education increased quicker than the number of women
Why did female pressure groups influence dwindle?
As the economy became more robust and unemployment significantly reduced so their influence on policy became virtually non-existent.
Women’s Strike for Equality
In August 1970 this strike marked the 50th anniversary of women’s suffrage, brought thousands of women onto Fifth Avenue, New York (unity).
How many girls between 15-19 wanted to be housewives in 1968?
The survey says that 65% of girls aged 15-19 years, wanted to be housewives by the age of 35 years.
What shows that by 1969 there had been movement towards a more equal status? [3]
- Single and married women were able to obtain credit in their own name.
- Advertised jobs were no longer under ‘Male’ and ‘Female’ headings.
- The provision of federal funding provided an incentive to large business corporations to adopt equal rates of pay and to avoid discrimination when employing
Where were a majority of women content to work?
In lower prestige, service occupations if these provided them with a reasonable comfortable lifestyle
How many women were in national politics by 1969?
11
Between 1970 and 1980 by how much did segregation in employment decrease?
10%
What professions did women begin to enter?
Telephone engineers, the police force, fire services, engineers, construction workers etc.
An example of a NOW law suit?
In 1979, NOW successfully pursued the case of a female employee in Iowa City fire brigade when the fire chief refused her permission to feed her baby at work during her time off. The city authorities also threatened her with disciplinary action if she breastfed her baby in the fire station.
How many women made up the total workforce in 1970?
42.8%
How many women were in work in 1970?
47%
How many married women with children worked outside the home in 1989?
73.2%
How many women made up the total 3 million managers and executive and what does this show?
4.8%- showing that very few women entered skilled work or the professions
What can maybe explain the lack of women in skilled work?
That in the 70s and 80s, the advantages that women might have gained from the expansion of opportunities for them in high education, especially those who might have been pursuit higher degrees in business and management, had yet to impact in high prestige occupations
What do people believe existed for women (and also ethnic minorities)?
A ‘glass ceiling’- an invisible barrier that prevented them from reaching the top jobs in big companies irrespective of equal opportunity legislation.
What was the pay gap like by the mid-1990s for a multitude of women?
Approximately 98% of men’s rate of pay
How many states provided partially paid maternity leave in the mid-1980s?
5
Was there a federal law requiring employers to provide paid maternity leave by 1992?
No even though there was pressure from the female lobby
By 1996 how many women owned business and how many employees collectively?
7.7 million with 15.5 million employees
How many women owned home-based businesses?
3.5 million
Why was the feminist movement limited in its success?
The proliferation of feminist groups, many with different and sometimes conflicting areas of focus, ensured that feminist campaigns would be fragmented and limited.
The Feminists
A radical feminist splinter group of NOW that existed in New York between 1968 and 1973.
What view did the Feminists promote?
It promoted the view that to be truly liberated, women needed to separate themselves from men in every aspect of their lives. They were particularly opposed to marriage.
Radicalesbians
An organisation formed in 1973 and combining women’s liberation and gay liberation. It campaigned for a gender less society where people could relate to each other as people, unimpeded by gender roles and expectations.
What did Friedan declare abortion to be in 1969?
‘A woman’s civil right’
When did the abortion campaign reach it climax?
In 1973 when the Supreme Court established a woman’s right to abortion as a result of Roe v Wade.
When did radical feminism reach its peak?
In the mid-70s
Why did the anti-feminist movement emerge?
To challenge feminist assertions of what constituted women’s rights like abortion.
When was the first edition of Ms magazine released?
January 1972
What was Ms. Magazine?
A magazine that gained notoriety when it published the names of women who admitted to having had illegal abortions ahead of the Roe v Wade decision. Furthermore it exposed the extent of rape and the realty of domestic violence.
How many copies of Ms magazine was in circulation by the end of 1972?
200,000
What did organised campaigns raise awareness of?
Inequality and discrimination experience amongst women in their lives
Why did teenage girls opinion towards femininity change?
Due to popular culture- music, films, books, fashions, education and more liberal lifestyle opportunities, led teenage girls to think about their future roles an to reject characteristics that, it was argued, had traditionally determined feminists and exposed women to exploitation and degradation by men.
What did a group of radical feminists do in 1968?
Publicly crowned a heap at the Miss World competition as a protest against what they saw to be the degradation of women involved in the contest, gained national news coverage.
How many girls aged between 15-19 wanted to be housewives by the time they were 35 in 1968 compared to 1978?
1968- 65%
1978- 25%
When did the pill become available for all young women?
During the early 1970s
Why was the Pill being available a major deal for women?
It was liberating because for the first time it gave women themselves total control over child bearing.
What effect do sociologists think the Pill had on women?
It explains the growing tendency for young women to marry later and to take advantage of educational and career opportunities to an unprecedented extent.
Why did the Pill alarm some women?
It alarmed those who upheld traditional values surrounding marriage and the home since it appeared to encourage promiscuity.
How many women in 1980 in high education had their sights set on a career compared to 1970?
1970- 40%
1980- 21%
How many women considered themselves feminists in 1986?
56%.
How many men supported gender equality in 1972 compared to 1990?
1972- 33%
1990- 40%
Why does the low male support for gender equality impact women civil rights?
As Congress and State legislatures were still male dominated.
Why was there no mass support for the feminist movement?
As feminist propaganda mostly conveyed the message to some middle-class women that they wanted to hear. Poor, working-class women were of the view that much of what was said bore little resemblance to the reality of their own lives.
How else was potential impact nationally further weakened?
Radical feminist groups, including local branches of NOW, operated predominantly at the grass roots level by responding to local priorities- setting up rape centres, self-defence classes, providing contraception or health centres for women and girls.
How was there ethnic diversity in the women’s movement in the mid-70s?
Feminist pressure groups were pursuing objectives very specific to their own situations and therefore divided priorities in the pressure groups.
National Conference of Women
Held in 1977 in Houston, Texas.
The 2,000 delegates of mixed age and ethnicity who attended the conference were focused on the campaign for equality in work and pay.
How had some women had their priorities met?
By the rulings of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the 1960s and by other legislation relating to women’s rights in the same period.
What most seriously undermined what radical feminism was seeking to achieve?
The anti-feminist backlash, together with their failure to establish a foothold in politics.
What did Roe v. Wade establish?
Women’s right to a legal abortion during the first six months of pregnancy and, most specifically, her right to make that decision independently.
When did the Supreme Court establish the right for married couples to use contraception?
1965
When did the Supreme Court establish the right for unmarried couples to use contraception?
1972
What had earlier campaigns for abortions focused on?
The pain and misery that was caused when women were force, from desperation, into having an illegal, ‘back street’ abortion.
What had the campaign for abortions in the 1970s focused on?
The extent of women’s rights, in this case the right of choice.
What organisations filed numerous lawsuits to get abortion legalised? [3]
The New Women Lawyers, the National Abortion Action Coalition and the Women’s Health and Abortion Project
What was the fundamental argument for the abortion campaign?
That women who had unwanted pregnancies or became pregnant as a result of rape were discriminated against since they were forced by the law to share their bodies it’s another living organism against their will.
When was the Roe v. Wade case?
1973
When was abortion allowed in a majority of states before Roe v Wade?
In the case where the life of the mother was threatened.
How did the Roe v Wade case start?
In 1970, Norma McCorvey, a poor, single, working-class woman from Dallas sued the Dallas County District Attorney, Henry Wade, for the right to have an abortion.
Why can the 1960s been seen as a turning point in the position and role of women?
The growing tendency for middle-class and some working-class women to marry later and produce fewer children; more career driven.
Briefly offered opportunity for married women to work outside home.
Usually agricultural work in rural areas
Many worked as nurses, saw as extension of domestic duties of the home.
Impact of Civil War on Women in work
1900- 4 million children working
1907- 30 states abolished child labour as a result of pressure from women’s groups
Women and Children in Workplace
