Witch Hunting: England

Question 1

Pre-Modern Witchcraft and Legal Acts

Answer 1

Witchcraft in England Pre-1542:

• Before 1542: Church Courts dealt with most cases involving witches and cunning folk, sanctions weren’t as harsh e.g. had to attend church wearing white sheet and holding wand
• If fraud, treason or murder involved then witch crime dealt with in secular courts, punishments harsher

1542 Act:

• Summoning spirits or practicing witchcraft in order to find treasure, destroy a person’s body or for any other unlawful purpose was a Capital Crime
• Repealed in 1547

1563 Act:

• Re-established Witchcraft as a felony
• Killing people punishable by death
• Injuring people/animals or harming goods had prison sentence for 1st offence and death for 2nd
• Secular Courts began to dominate prosecutions

1604 Act:

• Made injuring people punishable by death for 1st conviction
• Death sentence for using dead bodies or bodies parts for sorcery

Question 2

Witchcraft Texts

Answer 2

Reginald Scot:

• 1st book on witchcraft published in England
• Discoverie of Witches: Attack on witchcraft
• Said there was no biblical foundation for witch hunting

Pro-Witchcraft Texts:

• Treatise Against Witchcraft 1590 by Henry Holland
• Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft 1609 by William Perkins, book influential until 17th century

Question 3

Magic and Superstitious Beliefs in England

Answer 3

Popular Culture Beliefs
Role of Devil:
- Less concerned with Demonic Pact than rest of Europe
- Idea of Diabolic Pact began to become common and by Hopkin’s Trials they were common
- Sabatt very rare in England

Familiars and Witches Mark:

• Familiars: half animal and half demon, more of English phenomenon
• 1566 Pamphlet about Chelmsford trials has info that one of the women had a familiar- cat called Satan
• Witches Mark: Supposed to be a place for familiar to suck blood from witch, mark used as evidence in trials, marks usually searched for by midwives

Cunning Folk:

• MacFarlane said that in village of Essex no person was more than 10ft from a cunning person
• Often healed sick and gave advice about how to deal with witches
• Cunning Folk considered good by people so were unlikely to be reported to authorities

Elite Culture Beliefs
Alchemy and Astrology:
- Many dabbled in alchemy and believed in astrology
- Likely that widespread acceptance of magical and occult influences helped convince elite that witchcraft was real

Impact of Classical Culture:

• Helped reinforce acceptance of witchcraft among elite
• Training for clergymen involved reading latin and greek classical texts, texts often referenced witchcraft and magic

Question 4

Impact of Reformation

and Socio-Economic Influences

Answer 4

Puritanism:

• By 17th century many radical Protestants were at odds with Anglican church, they saw it as too papist
• Civil War 1642-6: King Charles defeated and Oliver Cromwell effectively ran England from 1640s-58 > Was Puritan
• Puritans seen as more likely to persecute witches, Hopkins Hunt occurred in Puritan dominated area
• Debate over whether Puritans more likely to persecute, some followed Reginald Scot and were sceptical, others believed in witches

Socio-Economic Influences:

• 1530-1630: England’s population grew 2.5 million > 5 million, created flood in labour market and led to decreased wages and increased poverty
• Rising food prices created division of wealthier farmers and poor villagers
• Poor who asked for charity seen as nuisance, witchcraft persecutions used as a way of removing them
• Scapegoating witches for problems
• These ideas don’t work for every area e.g. Essex and Kent had similar Socio-Economic issue but Essex had many hunts and Kent had fewer

Question 5

English Legal Process

Answer 5

Process:

• Different to Europe, determination of guilt left to jury
• Judge remained fairly impartial

Accusations:

• Most accusations came from rural communities
• In most cases Victim had tried to counter witchcraft e.g. by drawing blood from witch, if nothing worked then they might take person to court
• Process of accusing person fairly simple: Complaint made to village constable, who would pass it on to local JP, JP would look for evidence and may be sent for trial

Assizes:

• Judges from Westminster would travel country to hear cases at Assizes, way of bringing centrally directed justice into localities
• Witch Trials heard by experienced judges who weren’t involved in village squabbles- they couldn’t work circuit in area they lived in
• Process: Evidence presented to jury to decide if person should go to trial, if jury said yes then a trial would start
• Process: If witch plead not guilty then jury would hear evidence and decide on guilt, no defence lawyer, trials only lasted 15-20 mins and D was presumed guilty

Legal Evidence:

• Witchcraft supernatural crime so evidence of supernatural or magical kind had to be given
• Some physical evidence accepted: Witches marks, if person killed and corpse bled when touched by witch it meant guilt, not being able to say lord’s prayer without faltering seen as guilty
• Contact with person followed by mishap could count as evidence, suspects association with animal could suggest working with a familiar

Sub-Inquisitorial Trial:

• European legal system inquisitorial: meant judges investigated and adjudicated
• Torture illegal
• English processes became more inquisitorial over years: evidence gained by oppression, searches for marks similar to inquisitorial process, laws relating to giving evidence altered so children could testify

Acquittal:

• Some witches may be acquitted, possible ties within community stopping people convicting them
• 1623: Edward Fairfax accused witches of bewitching his daughters but unable to get conviction because of rallying community support for the alleged witches

Question 6

Witch Hunts 1560-1612:

Explanations

Answer 6

Village Community:

• Those who stood out as troublemakers were swiftly punished e.g. by ducking stool, putting them in a cage or leading them around town in a metal bridle
• Gossip was a major pastime in villages, antagonisms and rivalries could lead to accusations, conduct of individuals constantly subjected to scrutiny by villagers
• Mainly wealthier members of yeomen families taking accusations to court because labourers couldn’t afford it

Elizabethan Witch Hunts:

• 1st trial resulting in a hanging took place at Chelmsford i 1566, similar trials followed
• Witch panic increased by uncovered plot to kill Elizabeth in 1578 using maleficent magic, Privy Council launched full-scale investigation, panic in government filtered down to rest of society > number of trials increased in 1580s and 90s
• By end of reign: number of trials decreased, by 1590s Anglican hierarchy sceptical about demonic possession and threat posed by witches

Boy of Burton:

• 1596: Robert Toone of Burton went hunting with nephew Thomas Darling, they got separated for a while but then returned home, Thomas got ill
• Thomas claimed green cat tracking him and that he could see green angels, started having fits, Alice gooderidge identified as witch and confessed to having him possessed
• John Darrell, Puritan preacher, exorcised Thomas and went on to become famous for performing exorcisms
• Thomas confessed to faking possession and Darrell imprisoned for fraud in 1599

Influence of Samuel Harsnett:

• Harsnett a chaplain and sat on commission that investigated Darrell, he had previously headed campaign to discredit exorcisms performed by Jesuit priests
• 1599: Published A Survey of Certain Dialogical Discourses, it condemned Darrell’s practices and questioned the belief in demons
• Harsnett rose up in Church and became Archbishop of York, continued attack on exorcisms
• 1603: church prohibited ministers from casting out demons without license

Impact of James I:

• Became king of England, previously James VI king of Scotland
• Scotland: he had supported major hunts after 1590 and written book about dangers of witchcraft
• 1604 Witchcraft Act: Made hanging mandatory for 1st witchcraft offence
• Anne Gunter: Girl having fits, accused 3 women of bewitching her, James interviewed girl many times and discovered she was lying, James prosecuted Gunter family > 1st counteraction against witch trials

Question 7

Lancaster Witches

Answer 7

Events Leading up to Trials:

• Pedlar John Law met Alizon Device, Alizon asked him for some pins and he said no, after he fell and Alizon confessed to bewitching him and asked for his forgiveness
• Alizon, her mother and brother taken to Roger Nowell, experienced JP, Alizon confessed to selling her soul to the Devil, Her mother Elizabeth confessed grandmother AKA Demidike was a witch
• Alizon questioned about Anne Whittle AKA Chattox, she said Chattox had killed 4 men by witchcraft
• Demidike and Chattox and her daughter Anne Redferne appeared before Nowell, were all taken to prison in Lancaster Castle to be tried for witchcraft

Meeting at Malkin Tower:

• April 10th 1612: Elizabeth Device organised meeting at Malkin Tower
• News of meeting reached Nowell and he held an inquiry to determine meeting’s purpose
• Elizabeth & James Device, Alice Nutter, Jennet Preston and others were accused of witchcraft and committed for trial

York Assizes:

• Jennet Preston taken for trial at Assizes, she was charged with murder of landowner by witchcraft
• Preston previously charged with murdering a child by witchcraft but had been acquitted in Lancashire
• Evidence from Lancashire sent to York and when paired with her being at Malkin Tower, she was found guilty and executed

Lancaster Assizes:

• Rest of Pendle tried in Lancaster, Demidike had already died in prison before trial
• Other women tried for various crimes e.g. Cannibalism and causing sickness

Thomas Potts:

• Almost all info about trials comes from his book The Wonderful Discoverie of Witches
• He was a clerk to Lancaster Assizes, he relied heavily on witness depositions and accounts of what happened in court, Over dramatised some parts to emphasise that justice had been done

Importance of Jennet Device:

• 9 yr old daughter of Elizabeth Device, key witness for prosecution, children not usually allowed to be witnesses but rules dropped for witch trials
• Jennet identified who attended Malkin meeting and gave evidence against her mother, brother and sister

18th August:

• Chattox charged with murder of Robert Nutter, confession given to Noweel used as evidence against her
• Elizabeth Device charged with 3 murders, Jennet gave evidence against her, James Device also gave evidence against her
• James’ confession to Nowell read out in court, charged with 2 murders by witchcraft, jennet also gave evidence against him

19th August:

• Alice Nutter only wealthy person accused, found guilty
• Jane Bulcock and son John identified as being at Malkin by Jennet, both guilty
• Alizon Device confessed in court
• 10 Pendle witches hanged in Lancaster on 20 August

Other Witches:

• 3 Samlesbury witches accusations thrown out, Isobel Robey Acquitted
• Margaret Pearson charged for non-capital witchcraft and made to stand in different markets and make public confession of her offences

Judges:

• Judges briefed on royal policy before riding out so judges Bromley and Altham presumably believed they were acting in accordance with the king
• Wonderful Discoverie by Thomas Potts possibly commissioned by them to show they had followed King’s guidelines

Question 8

End of James I’s Reign
and
Decline in Official Concern

Answer 8

Last years of James’ Reign:

• James seemed to grow increasingly sceptical of witchcraft accusations, preferred to show knowledge of witches by exposing fraudulent accusations
• Castigated 2 judges in Lancaster for finding such a large number of accused witches guilty, as a result of his intervention 5 were pardoned
• James lost interest in Demonology

Decline of Official Concern:

• Mid 1620s: English authorities had become more sceptical about witchcraft accusations, few witches came to court in Charles I reign and those that did were acquitted
• Edmund Robinson: boy who claimed to have been taken to a Sabatt by a witch, identified number of local women as witches, Judge became alarmed at number of accusations and referred it to central government
• Edmund Robinson: Bishop of Chester asked to investigate and was convinced it was a fraud, Royal physician examined women found no marks, Robinson confessed he had faked story and his father had suggested the names
• 1640: Government’s concern about witches declining, law no longer offered protection against witches