Why should I be moral? Flashcards
What is meant by ‘moral motivation’?
Moral motivation is the idea that somebody is motivated or influenced by the morals which they hold, which differ from person to person.
What is ‘self-interest’? How does it differ from ‘selfishness’?
Self interest refers to acting in your own interest or towards your desires, but selfishness refers to a person whose only aim is to reach their desires or goals, regardless of the consequences for others. Selfishness could be redefined as excessive self interest.
What is the difference between ‘agent-centred’ and ‘act-centred’ morality?
Agent centred focuses on the person who is acting out the act, where as act centred focuses on the actual act itself.
Using the ‘Myth of Gyges’, explain why the question ‘why be moral’ is a philosophical problem.
In the ring of Gyges, Gyges discovers a ring which holds the power to turn any man invisible when he wears the ring. This therefore leads to a world where the man with the ring can act without consequence. Gyges puts forward the idea that you could give any man this ring, and he would act immorally, regardless of his previous moral status, as morality is merely whatever suits our self interest. Gyges puts forward the question, why should I be moral? What do I have to gain?
What is meant by psychological egoism?
This is the view that humans are always motivated by self interest, even in what appears to be altruistic acts. It claims that all acts are taken because of the personal benefit that can be gained, either directly or indirectly from doing so.
What is meant by ethical egoism, and ‘enlightened ethical egoism’? How do they differ?
The view that humans ought to do whatever promotes their self interest.
Enlightened ethical egoism is the view that humans ought to do whatever promotes their enlightened self interest, this means acting to further the self interests of others, and ultimately their own self interest.
What does Game Theory show about the comparative advantage of enlightened egoism?
In game theory there are four possible behaviours that can be taken:
Selfishness, harming the other in order to help yourself.
Altruism, harming yourself to help the other.
Spite, harming yourself to harm the other.
Cooperation, helping somebody else and also helping yourself.
It is advantageous in game theory to act as an enlightened egoist, this would involve cooperating. This is the outcome that will help both the other person and you in the long term.
What is a contractarian? How do contractarians view morality and what ‘being moral’ involves?
Contractual ethical egoism is the idea that it is in your self interest to act morally towards others. By acting morally towards others, you build up a trustful relationship, for example I will not hurt you, and you will not hurt me. By entering this contract, I have both acted morally and also secured my self interest of not being hurt by others.
Why do enlightened egoists tend to be contractarians?
Being a contractarian secures your long term self interest and also the interests of others, and thus by doing so you are also an enlightened egoist.
What are the key features/mechanisms of Hobbes’ Social Contract theory of morality?
Hobbes believed that morality was a social construct formed by humans as a means of allowing society to function. This is achieved specifically through Hobbes’ theory of a social contract, which involves sacrificing the freedom to kill and harm one another (in order to promote self-interest) for the ability to live in a society free from constant violence and lack of trust. This is achieved, according to Hobbes, through the placement of a ‘Leviathan’ figure, who is essentially an all-powerful king, By allowing this being to govern and punish those who break the rules of the contract- e.g by not fulfilling trade agreements or killing another person- we enable society to function, hence ultimately serving our self-interest as we can reasonably trust others and live in a freer environment than if we remained in the ‘state of nature’. Hobbes’ definition of ‘state of nature’ is essentially anarchy; a state without organised society and hence constructed morality, this environment would be an “every man for himself” type of place with constant fear of being attacked for the aggressor’s personal benefit. It was thus believed by Hobbes’ that in the light of this state of nature, humans would come together to create an enforced system under a Leviathan with unquestionable authority. Hence our entire system of ethical conduct is a contractual arrangement for achieving our mutual self-interest, with all parties consenting to the contract because it is better than the alternative (being free but constantly afraid).
How does contractarianism explain moral motivation? What is the relationship between morality and self-interest?
Moral motivation for contractarians exists through the need to be moral in order to prevent a violent, unhappy state of nature (based on the idea that humans are fundamentally motivated by self-interest). We act morally because it is better than the alternative- acting unmorally and being forever unhappy due to the lack of trust available. This ultimately serves our self-interest as acting morally allows us to enter into contracts with others, receiving benefits through a trade off of freedom and allowing us to live free from fear of being ‘stabbed in the back’. The idea is that humans can flourish acting morally as a result of the positive external effects achieved, namely the development of social contracts with others and the happier atmosphere achieved as a result of these.
Explain the disadvantages of contractarian theories of morality (at least two must relate to why I should be moral).
- It is hard to prove that every human is fundamentally motivated by self-interest- there may be genuine altruists who would act according to a ‘social contract’ without being forced to by society.
- It only takes one person to break the social contract for the system to essentially not work- they could still get away with being fundamentally immoral and self-interested even if others subscribe to the theory of contractarianism. Not everyone may want to act according to these rules.
- The theory does not actually justify being moral. It rather emphasises the importance of cooperation, which is different. The theory does not present any intrinsic necessity to acting morally. The theory arguably weakens morality to the point of reducing it to cooperative behaviour.
- The contractual morality is entirely contextual- as soon as the ‘payoffs’ are changed the contract ceases to be relevant. E.g Gyges, upon finding the ring, ceases to act morally because he can get away with doing so. We do not perceive morality to be something that depends on the circumstances- we see it as binding and universal.
- Who should the contract extend to? Animals cannot enter into any kind of rational arrangement or covenant with human beings, so is it ok to do whatever we like to them? And should vulnerable humans who can bring nothing of benefit to an arrangement with the egoist be left to die?
What is meant by the terms ‘eudaimonia’or ‘flourishing’?
Where egoists focus on achieving our self interests, virtue ethicists focus on human flourishing or well-being. The overall goal of contentedness and happiness cannot be achieved by one off virtuous acts, but must be continued through a good life, and thus you will reach your full potential. You cannot flourish if you are not living a good human life, and you can’t live a good human life if you are not a virtuous being.
What is meant by ‘virtue’ and ‘function’, and how do these terms relate to one another?
Virtue/arête : an excellent character trait that is well entrenched in it’s possessor. For example honesty. Virtues enable a person to fufill their function well. It is something that is more than just a one off act of honesty, if a person in genuinely honest then they possess a complex mindset that recognises the intrinsic value of an honest way of life, and embraces it.
Function/ergon: Virtue ethicists focus on being a good human, which means to fulfil your function well. Virtues ethicists such as Plato and Aristotle argue that the defining feature of all humans is reason/logos, and therefore a good person will be rational. They will also be sociable, as human beings are naturally social and political creatures who interact and live in communities.
In order to fulfil a humans function well, the person must also be virtuous, in particular rational and sociable.
What is the function of a good human life or individual, according to Plato and Aristotle?
Virtue ethicists focus on being a good human, which means to fulfil your function well. Virtues ethicists such as Plato and Aristotle argue that the defining feature of all humans is reason/logos, and therefore a good person will be rational. They will also be sociable, as human beings are naturally social and political creatures who interact and live in communities.
