What drives us? Theories of motivation

Question 1

Instinct theory

Answer 1

Refers to an intrinsic motivational factor that describes how:

• Motivation arises from natural selection and certain behaviours are innate and automatic, triggered by specific stimuli.
• Emphasises behaviours driven by survival instincts, like Fight or flight responses in dangerous situations.

Question 2

Drive reduction theory.

Answer 2

Refers to an intrinsic motivational factor that describes how:

• Motivation arises when internal physiological systems are in a state of imbalance, prompting biological needs such as hunger and thirst.
• Emphasises homeostasis, also known as internal balance, by reducing these drives through specific actions or behaviours.
• E.g. When a person feels hungry or thirsty (imbalance) they are motivated to eat or drink (action) to restore equilibrium (homeostasis).

Question 3

Arousal theory

Answer 3

Refers to an intrinsic motivational factor that describes how:

• Motivation arises when individuals seek a moderate level of physiological activation (brain activity, heart rate or muscle tension) to achieve peak performance.
• Emphasises the importance of maintaining an optimal level of arousal for different tasks.
• E.g. moderate arousal leads to optimal performance, while low (boredom) or high levels (anxiety or overexcitement) of arousal can hinder performance.

Question 4

Incentive Theory

Answer 4

Refers to an extrinsic motivational factor that describes how:
- Proposes that environmental stimuli motivate individuals by either attracting them towards rewards or prompting them to avoid punishments.
- Rewards such as positive incentive or rewards such as
o E.g. bonuses, a job promotion in a workplace context.
- Punitive measures such as avoiding negative consequences or punishments.
o E.g. fear of losing one’s job.

Question 5

Homeostasis

Answer 5

A term used to describe the equilibrium (balance) within an organism’s internal environment.

• Describes how imbalances can prompt signals within the organism to restore balance, resulting in actions to restore physiological needs.

Question 6

Arousal

Answer 6

A term used to describe the physiological activation of signals to alert an organism that there is a deficiency and needs to take actions to restore balance (homeostasis) to their internal system.

This can look like changes in:

• Blood pressure, brain activity, skin conductance.

Question 7

Primary drives

Answer 7

Refers to the ways an organism can enact change to restore homeostasis.
Includes primal drives related to basic necessities.

• Water, food, air

Question 8

Secondary drives

Answer 8

Refers to the ways an organism can enact change to restore homeostasis.
Includes learned experiences.
- Wealth, financial security

Question 9

Yerkes-Dodson model of arousal

Answer 9

Suggests that performance is influenced by arousal levels. Moderate arousal is linked to optimal performance, whereas low and high arousal hinders performance.

Question 10

Carrot and stick approach.

Answer 10

Suggests that external rewards motivate individuals, whereas negative consequences or punishments hinder motivations.

Question 11

Job characteristics model

Answer 11

Focuses on how autonomy and task significance, influence motivation and job satisfaction.

• Suggests that certain job characteristics, like skill variety and feedback, can lead to higher levels of motivation and satisfaction.

Question 12

Herzberg’s two factor theory

Answer 12

Distinguishes between two types of factors influencing job satisfaction and dissatisfaction:

• Motivator factors and hygiene factors such as:
• Achievement and personal growth, enhance job satisfaction, while hygiene factors, such as working conditions and salary, relate to job dissatisfaction.
  Suggests that improving motivator factors leads to increased satisfaction, while addressing hygiene factors prevents dissatisfaction.

Question 13

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 13

Categorizes human needs into five levels, ranging from:

• Basic physiological needs (e.g., food, shelter)
• Safety needs (security, safety)
• Belonging and love needs (intimate relationships, friends)
• Esteem needs (prestige and feeling of accomplishment)
• Self-actualization (achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities)
  Suggests that individuals seek to fulfill lower-level needs before moving on to higher-level needs.

Question 14

Mastery goals

Answer 14

A form on intrinsic motivation that tends to be associated with satisfaction of learning more in order to master something to become competent in it.
- Derived from intrapersonal standards ( based on evaluation of self)

Question 15

Performance goals

Answer 15

A form of extrinsic motivation that tends to be associated with wanting to attain positive outcomes through demonstration of a skill the individual already has, whilst avoiding new challenges.
- Based on normative standards (comparison of self to others)

Question 16

Hunger

Answer 16

A term used to describe an essential human instinct that drives us to seek sustenance for energy / survival.

A physiological sensation / feeling of discomfort caused by the body’s need for fuel.
- It is a way for the body to signal that it requires sustenance to maintain energy levels to function properly.

Question 17

Eating

Answer 17

A process of consuming food that breaks food down into molecules in the form of nutrients for the body to consume to satisfy hunger and provide energy to the body for various biological functions.

Question 18

Physiological cues

Answer 18

These are signals from the body that indicate hunger or fullness.
Include sensations such as:
- Stomach rumbling, changes in blood glucose levels and feelings of fullness.

Question 19

Hunger hormones.

Answer 19

These are chemical messengers produced by endocrine cells in the body (pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, and stomach) that regulate appetite and hunger levels. They send signals to the brain to initiate or supress hunger.
- Ghrelin, which stimulates the appetite.
- Cholecystokinin, which suppresses appetite.

Question 20

Hypothalamic neurons

Answer 20

These are nerve celled located in the hypothalamus, responsible for playing a dual role in:
- Regulating various bodily functions including hunger and appetite.
- Detect hunger signals and initiate the appropriate responses to maintain energy balance.

Question 21

Ghrelin

Answer 21

A hunger hormone produced by the stomach and stimulates appetite and increases food intake. It is released when the stomach is empty and acts on the hypothalamus to signal hunger and promote eating.

Question 22

Cholecystokinin

Answer 22

A hormone that is produced in the small intestine in response to food intake. It functions to suppress appetite and reduce intake by signaling feelings of fullness to the brain.

Question 23

Glucose

Answer 23

A type of sugar that serves as the primary source of energy for cells in the body.
- Obtained from carbohydrates in food and is essential for maintaining normal bodily functions, including brain function and muscle activity.
- Are closely regulated in the blood to ensure adequate energy supply to tissues.

Question 24

Neuronormative lens

Answer 24

Refers to a perspective that is centred around the typical or expected functioning of neurons and neural processes in the brain. Implies a standard or norm for how neural functioning is understood or perceived.
- May influence how society views and interacts with individuals based on their neurological characteristics, including cognition, behaviour, and mental health.
- Shapes societal norms, expectations and attitudes towards neurological diversity and differences.

Question 25

Sensory processing

Answer 25

Refers to how an individual perceives external stimuli, internal bodily signals and their awareness of self in space.
- Plays a crucial role in shaping behaviours and image perceptions.

Question 26

Interoception

Answer 26

An individual’s ability to recognise internal bodily sensations.
Being aware of the body’s physiological states and internal processes.
- Hunger,
- Thirst, heartbeat,
- Visceral sensations like pain or discomfort

Question 27

Proprioception

Answer 27

An individual’s ability to recognise the body’s position, movement and orientation in space.
- Allows individuals to perceive the relative position of the body parts to each other and to the environment without relying on vision.
- Proprioceptors (specialised sensory receptors) are in muscles, tendons, and joins. They provide feedback to the brain about body position and movement, enabling coordination and accurate motor controls.

Question 28

Trauma-informed

Answer 28

Refers to a framework or perspective that acknowledges and integrates an understanding of the impacts of trauma on individual and communities into all aspects of service provision.
- Emphasises creating a safe, trustworthy, empowering, collaborative and cultural humility environment.
- Recognises the prevalence of trauma and seeks to avoid re-traumatisation while promoting healing and resilience.

Question 29

Adaptive

Answer 29

Refers to behaviours, traits, or characteristics that are beneficial or advantageous for an individual’s well-being, survival, and functioning in their environment.
- Allow individuals to effectively cope with challenges, navigate social interactions, and achieve their goals.
- Contribute to an individual’s ability to adapt to changing circumstances, learn from experiences, and maintain psychological resilience.
- Adaptive behaviours are considered beneficial because they enhance an individual’s ability to thrive and succeed in their environment

Question 30

Sexual behaviour

Answer 30

Generally, refers to procreation, as it is vital in a species survival.
- Ensures genes are carried onto future generations.
However, humans have evolved past the basic need for survival, opening up a world of sexual behaviours that are developed for enjoyment.

Question 31

Sexual desire

Answer 31

Also known as libido or sexual arousal.
- Refers to the subjective experience of wanting or craving sexual activity.
- Involves both physical and psychological components and varies in intensity among individuals.

Question 32

Libido

Answer 32

Refers to the innate, biological drive for sexual activity.

Question 33

Testosterone

Answer 33

a hormone primarily produced in the testes in males and in smaller amounts in the ovaries in females.
- Plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues and secondary sexual characteristics, as well as in regulating sexual desire, muscle mass, bone density, and other physiological processes.

Question 34

Evolutionary psychology

Answer 34

suggests that over time, our behaviours, and feelings have developed to give us an edge in surviving, reproducing, and ensuring our gene line continues

Question 35

Sexual dimorphism

Answer 35

Refers to how men and women have different roles in pregnancy and nurturing a child, they often look for different things in a partner.
From this biological and evolutionary perspective:
- Women, due to the substantial investment required for pregnancy and nursing, tend to be more selective in choosing mates.
- Men, who can potentially have children with multiple partners, which ensures the gene line continues and creates variability in genetic offspring, can do so without as much investment into child rearing and, therefore might have different criteria they seek in a mate.

Question 36

Good genes hypothesis

Answer 36

suggests we’re attracted to partners who seem genetically fit, and likely to create offspring with positive genetic traits

Question 37

Sexy son hypothesis

Answer 37

proposes that women might pick mates that will unlikely contribute to the care responsibilities but based on traits that make their sons more appealing to future partners, like attractiveness or height, even if those traits don’t offer immediate benefits

Question 38

Sexual motivation

Answer 38

The desire to engage in sex may also be driven by our need for intimacy

Question 39

Intimacy

Answer 39

A way to express love and affection for their partner. It can convey deep emotions and reinforce the bond between individuals. Emotional bonds formed through sexual intimacy help forge and sustain relationships.

Question 40

Feminist lens

Answer 40

A perspective that critically examines psychological theories, research, and practices through the lens of gender and power dynamics. It seeks to uncover and challenge biases and inequalities related to gender, emphasising the importance of considering the experiences and perspectives of women and marginalised genders in psychological analysis. This lens aims to shed light on how societal norms, stereotypes, and structural inequalities shape individuals’ psychological processes, behaviours, and well-being, ultimately advocating for a more inclusive and equitable approach to understanding and addressing human experiences within the field of psychology

Question 41

Sexual drive

Answer 41

These theories assume women have equal freedom and safety to pick a partner of their desire, which does not acknowledge global experiences of gendered violence. Approximately four out of five women have been subjected to sexual violence in their lifetime. These theories of sexual desire and evolution don’t explore cultural differences, and assume all women and all men are motivated by the same drives, ignoring the experiences of marginalisation, oppression, and privilege

Question 42

Societal norms

Answer 42

Unwritten rules, expectations and standards that govern behaviour, beliefs, attitudes and interactions within a society or social group.
- Dictate what is considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable behaviour.

Question 43

Excitement

Answer 43

The excitement phase commences with the triggers of sexual interest. Fatigue, stress, pain, illness, lack of attraction, depression, anxiety, and resentment can hinder sexual desire. During this phase, sexual pleasure is experienced, and physiological changes like penile erection in men and vaginal swelling and lubrication in women occur.

Question 44

Plateau

Answer 44

Building sexual tension characterises the plateau phase, eventually leading to orgasm if sustained.

Question 45

Orgasm

Answer 45

Orgasm marks the peak of sexual pleasure and physical changes, including rhythmic genital muscle contractions in both genders and ejaculation in men.

Question 46

Resolution

Answer 46

Following orgasm, the resolution phase brings relaxation and well-being as the body returns to its unstimulated state.