Western Philosophers

Question 1

State of Nature (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 1

1- Hypothetical condition of a state
2- No government, laws, or common power
3- Human beings live without established authority
4- Absence of a social contract

Question 2

Human Nature (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 2

1. Natural Equality:
   
   • All humans are equal in physical and mental abilities.
   • Equality leads to competition; no one can dominate easily.
2. Self-Interest:
   
   • Humans focus on their own survival and well-being.
   • Self-interest drives actions.
3. Desire for Self-Preservation:
   
   • Primary motivation is to preserve life.
   • This dictates protective actions.
4. Fear and Insecurity:
   
   • Fear of others creates insecurity and distrust.
5. Competition and Glory:
   
   • Humans seek resources and recognition.
   • Desire for glory leads to conflict.

Question 3

Conditions in the State of Nature (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 3

1. No Common Authority:
   
   • No overarching authority or government
   • Individuals secure their own safety and well-being
2. Perpetual Conflict:
   
   • Absence of common power leads to perpetual conflict
   • Competition for limited resources driven by survival and desire for more
3. Universal Insecurity:
   
   • Everyone lives in constant fear and vulnerability
   • Threat of violence from others seeking resources
4. Mutual Distrust:
   
   • Lack of trust exacerbates conflict and insecurity
   • People are suspicious of each other’s intentions, leading to hostility

Question 4

Critics on State of Nature (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 4

1. Samuel Pufendorf (Father of Natural Law Theory):
   
   • Individuals avoid conflict due to self-preservation instincts
2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Father of Modern Political Philosophy):
   
   • Humans were noble savages before society’s corruption
3. David Hume (Pioneer of Empiricism):
   
   • Human cooperation and sociability are natural
4. Alasdair MacIntyre (Prominent Virtue Ethicist):
   
   • Hobbes’ state of nature lacks virtue and community
   • Essential for a good life

Question 5

Appreciations on State of Nature (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 5

1. Carl Schmitt (Political Theorist of Sovereignty):
   
   • Praises realistic depiction of human nature and need for powerful sovereign
   • crucial for justifying existence of strong state
2. Leo Strauss (Philosopher of Political Philosophy):
   
   • Appreciates break from classical philosophy and emphasis on materialistic basis
   • Recognizes influence on modern secular states and political thought
3. Hannah Arendt (Political Theorist of Totalitarianism):
   
   • Acknowledges contribution to understanding state power and sovereignty
   • Appreciates justification for creation of political authority for peace and stability

Question 6

Social Contract Theory (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 6

1. Implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and establish a government
2. Individuals consent to surrender certain freedoms to a central authority
3. Exchange for protection and order

Question 7

Purpose of Social Contract Theory (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 7

1. Escape brutal and anarchic conditions of the state of nature
2. Create a structured society for peace, security, and cooperation
3. Live under the protection of a common authority

Question 8

Transitions from State of Nature to the Social contract (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 8

1. Rational Fear and Reason:
   
   • Constant fear and insecurity in the state of nature
   • Rational fear and reason drive individuals to seek a solution
2. Mutual Agreement:
   
   • Recognize necessity of mutual agreements for peace and security
   • Decide to relinquish some natural rights and submit to a sovereign
3. Establishment of a Common Power:
   
   • Social contract establishes a common power to enforce laws, resolve disputes, and provide protection
   • Marks creation of civil society and end of the state of nature

Question 9

Implications of Social Contract Theory (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 9

1. Surrender of all Rights:
   
   • Individuals surrender all rights (e.g., right to exact personal vengeance) to sovereign authority
   • Done in exchange for protection of their lives and interest
2. Creation of Laws and Order:
   
   • Establishes framework for creating laws and maintaining order
   • Sovereign enforces laws to ensure social stability and prevent return to state of nature
3. Obligations and Duties:
   
   • Individuals obligated to obey laws and decisions of sovereign
   • Sovereign responsible for protecting lives, liberties, and property of individuals
4. Absolute Sovereignty:
   
   • Justifies establishment of powerful, centralized authority to maintain peace and security
   • Sovereign’s power is absolute to prevent chaos of state of nature
5. Legitimacy of Political Authority:
   
   • Political authority is legitimate based on collective agreement to submit to sovereign power
   • Social contract provides rational basis for existence and authority of government
6. Prevention of Civil War:
   
   • Aims to prevent return to anarchy and civil war
   • Establishes powerful sovereign to maintain civil peace and prevent internal conflicts

Question 10

Critics on Social Contract Theory (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 10

1. David Hume (Pioneer of Empiricism):
   
   • Criticizes social contract as a hypothetical construct, not historical fact
   • Argues political authority arises gradually through custom and habit
2. Robert Nozick (Libertarian Philosopher):
   
   • Argues for possibility of a minimal state over a powerful sovereign
   • Believes less intrusive government can effectively protect individual rights

Question 11

Appreciations on Social Contract Theory (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 11

1. John Rawls (Philosopher of Justice as Fairness):
   
   • Appreciates Hobbes’ foundational role in developing social contract theory
   • Builds upon Hobbes to propose his own theory emphasizing fairness and equality
2. Isaiah Berlin (Proponent of Liberalism and Pluralism):
   
   • Recognizes Hobbes’ influence on political theory development
   • Appreciates argument for necessity of strong sovereign to avoid chaos
3. Michael Oakeshott (Philosopher of Political Theory):
   
   • Appreciates emphasis on necessity of legal and political framework
   • Sees Hobbes’ ideas as foundational for modern conception of the state

Question 12

Concept of ‘The Sovereign’ (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 12

1. Absolute Power:
   
   • Sovereign must have absolute power to ensure peace and prevent return to state of nature
   • Power is undivided and unlimited, allowing enforcement of laws and maintenance of order
2. Centralized Control:
   
   • All power concentrated in a single entity or governing body
   • Centralization crucial for effective and stable governance
3. Source of Authority:
   
   • Power derives from social contract
   • Individuals collectively agree to surrender natural rights in exchange for security and order

Question 13

Roles & functions of ‘The Sovereign’ (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 13

1. Law-Making:
   
   • Sovereign has exclusive right to create and enforce laws
   • Ensures uniform legal system and prevents conflicts
2. Judiciary Power:
   
   • Sovereign acts as ultimate judge in legal matters
   • Ensures impartial justice and resolves disputes
3. Military Power:
   
   • Sovereign controls the military
   • Authority to defend state against internal and external threats
4. Taxation:
   
   • Sovereign has power to levy taxes
   • Funds functioning of government and public services

Question 14

Responsibilities of ‘The Sovereign’ (Thomas Hobbes)

Answer 14

1. Ensuring Security:
   
   • Provide security and protect citizens from state of nature threats
2. Maintaining Order:
   
   • Maintain social order and prevent chaos using laws and enforcement
3. Promoting Welfare:
   
   • Ensure general welfare, stability, and prosperity of society
4. Moral Obligations:
   
   • Sovereign morally obligated to act in best interests of subjects
   • Uphold justice and ensure well-being of society

Question 15

Justification of Thomas Hobbes on All-powerful ‘The Sovereign’

Answer 15

1. Preventing Chaos:
   
   • Necessary to prevent chaos and violence of the state of nature
   • Powerful, centralized authority maintains order and protects from mutual destruction
2. Rational Fear:
   
   • Rational fear of state of nature dangers drives acceptance of absolute sovereign
   • Fear underpins social contract and voluntary surrender of certain freedoms
3. Ensuring Stability:
   
   • Absolute authority ensures continuous stability and prevents civil war
   • Consolidation of power provides consistent and effective governance
4. Practical Justification:
   
   • Absolute authority is necessary to enforce laws and command obedience
   • Maintains social order

Question 16

Critics on Thomas Hobbes’ All-powerful Sovereign Authority:

Answer 16

1. Hannah Arendt (Political Theorist of Totalitarianism):
   
   • Criticizes conflation of power with violence
   • Argues true political power arises from collective action and consent
   • Believes Hobbes’ sovereign undermines genuine political engagement and freedom
2. Alasdair MacIntyre (Prominent Virtue Ethicist):
   
   • Criticizes mechanistic view of human nature
   • Argues it reduces human relationships to transactions of power and obedience
   • Believes theory fails to account for ethical and communal aspects of human life
3. Michael Oakeshott (Philosopher of Political Theory):
   
   • Views sovereign as too rigid and authoritarian
   • Argues for flexible and adaptive governance
   • Emphasizes importance of individual freedoms and local traditions

Question 17

Appreciations on Thomas Hobbes’ Sovereign Authority

Answer 17

1. Michel Foucault (Philosopher of Power and Social Institutions):
   
   • Values insights into necessity of powerful sovereign for social order
   • Appreciates realistic portrayal of state of nature and need for centralized authority
2. Quentin Skinner (Historian of Political Thought):
   
   • Values innovative use of state of nature to justify social contract and political authority
   • Sees it as powerful argument for necessity of strong, centralized government to prevent conflict and maintain order