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biol272 > weeks 9-10 > Flashcards

weeks 9-10 Flashcards

1
Q

Q: How is behavior coordinated in organisms?

A

A: Behavior is coordinated by the nervous system, which converts external energy into signals guiding behavior.

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2
Q

Q: Define excitability in living organisms.

A

A: Excitability is the ability to respond to environmental stimuli, fundamental to life.

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3
Q

Q: What are the two types of communication mechanisms in multicellular organisms?

A

A: Neural mechanisms (rapid, brief) and hormonal mechanisms (slower, long-term).

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4
Q

Q: What is the role of neurons in the nervous system?

A

A: Neurons are the functional units that translate signals into electrochemical messages.

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5
Q

Q: How do dendrites and axons differ in neuron structure?

A

A: Dendrites bring signals into the cell body, while axons carry signals away from the cell body.

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6
Q

Q: What defines the resting potential of a neuron?

A

A: The resting potential is about -70 mV, with the inside of the cell being negative relative to the outside.

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7
Q

Q: Describe the role of the sodium-potassium pump during resting potential.

A

A: It pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell, maintaining the negative charge inside.

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8
Q

Q: What triggers an action potential in a neuron?

A

A: An action potential starts when the plasma membrane potential is disturbed, causing sodium channels to open.

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9
Q

Q: What happens during depolarization and repolarization?

A

A: During depolarization, Na+ floods into the neuron. During repolarization, K+ exits the neuron to restore the resting potential.

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10
Q

Q: What are synapses?

A

A: Synapses are junctions between neurons where information is transmitted, either electrically or chemically.

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11
Q

Q: What are neurotransmitters?

A

A: Chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane.

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12
Q

Q: What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory synapses?

A

A: Excitatory synapses increase positive charge (EPSP), promoting action potentials, while inhibitory synapses increase negative charge (IPSP), preventing action potentials.

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13
Q

Q: What is the significance of sense organs in the peripheral nervous system?

A

A: Sense organs detect environmental cues and translate stimuli into action potentials sent to the CNS.

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14
Q

Q: What are chemoreceptors and their role?

A

A: Chemoreceptors transmit information about solute concentration and help organisms locate food or avoid toxins.

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15
Q

Q: How do mechanoreceptors function?

A

A: Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformations caused by stimuli like pressure, stretch, and sound.

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16
Q

Q: Describe the function of electromagnetic receptors.

A

A: They detect various forms of electromagnetic energy, such as visible light and magnetic fields.

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17
Q

Q: Compare rods and cones in vertebrate vision.

A

A: Rods are sensitive to light but do not detect color, while cones distinguish colors (red, green, blue pigments).

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18
Q

Q: What is trichromatic vision?

A

A: Trichromatic vision is the ability to perceive colors through three types of cones (red, green, blue).

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19
Q

Q: What are Tinbergen’s Four Questions about behavior used for?

A

A: They provide a framework to understand behavior from multiple perspectives.

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20
Q

Q: What does the proximate cause question (i) in Tinbergen’s framework ask?

A

A: It asks what environmental stimuli or physiological factors are responsible for short-term changes in behavior.

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21
Q

Q: What does the development question (ii) in Tinbergen’s framework inquire about?

A

A: It examines how behavior changes over the lifetime of an individual.

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22
Q

Q: What is the focus of the function question (iii) in Tinbergen’s framework?

A

Q: What is the focus of the function question (iii) in Tinbergen’s framework?

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23
Q

Q: How does the evolution question (iv) in Tinbergen’s framework contribute to understanding behavior?

A

A: It considers how current behavior has been shaped by natural selection over time.

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24
Q

Q: What can be said about cockroaches and their evolutionary success?

A

A: Cockroaches have been around for hundreds of millions of years, are highly adaptive, and excel at escaping predators.

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25
Q

Q: What is the “toad strike” in relation to cockroaches?

A

A: The toad’s strike behavior is a predatory threat that cockroaches have evolved behaviors to avoid.

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26
Q

Q: How quickly do cockroaches begin to evade an incoming predator’s strike?

A

A: Cockroaches start to turn to escape about 16 milliseconds before the tongue strike begins.

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27
Q

Q: What are cercal hairs in cockroaches, and what purpose do they serve?

A

A: Cercal hairs are mechanoreceptors that detect changes in airflow, helping cockroaches sense approaching predators.

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28
Q

Q: Summarize Lettvin’s (1959) study on frog retinal neurons.

A

A: It demonstrated that retinal ganglion cells filter out irrelevant stimuli, focusing on biologically important information.

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29
Q

Q: What is the center/surround organization in the retina?

A

A: It refers to how ganglion cells respond to stimuli based on stimulation patterns in their receptive fields.

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30
Q

Q: How do barn owls use auditory cues to hunt?

A

A: They rely on sound to locate prey, utilizing adaptations to discern both vertical and horizontal distances.

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31
Q

Q: Describe the significance of the barn owl’s asymmetrical ear structure.

A

A: The asymmetry helps owls detect differences in sound arrival times, improving spatial resolution of sound location.

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32
Q

Q: What is temporal disparity in sound perception?

A

A: It refers to the difference in timing of sound arrival at both ears, which owls use to gauge the direction of sounds.

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33
Q

Q: How do owls use sound to determine the elevation of prey?

A

A: Sounds from above (predators) and below (prey) reach the ears with different amplitudes, helping owls locate the source.

34
Q

Q: What is neural plasticity, especially regarding critical periods in young birds?

A

A: Neural pathways can adapt based on sensory experiences, particularly during sensitive periods in development.

35
Q

Q: How does altering sensory input (like vision) affect auditory processing in owls?

A

A: Changes in visual input can realign the auditory spatial map, demonstrating a connection between sensory modalities.

36
Q

Q: What critical period exists concerning auditory input in owls?

A

A: It is vital for developing neural connections, where experiences significantly shape auditory processing abilities.

37
Q

Q: How does the saying “use it or lose it” relate to synaptic connections in athletic training?

A

A: It describes how frequently used neural pathways strengthen, while less-used connections may dissipate with time.

38
Q

Q: How do hormonal mechanisms compare to neural mechanisms in terms of speed and duration?

A

A: Hormonal mechanisms are slower and have longer-lasting effects than neural mechanisms.

39
Q

Q: What are hormones?

A

A: Hormones are chemical substances secreted into the bloodstream in one part of the body that cause changes elsewhere.

40
Q

Q: What types of cells produce hormones?

A

A: Hormones can be secreted by glands or neurons (neurohormones).

41
Q

Q: What role do target cells play in the endocrine system?

A

A: Target cells have receptor molecules that bind hormones, and receptor types define the nature of the response.

42
Q

Q: What are the two major classes of hormones?

A

A: Steroids and peptides.

43
Q

Q: What are steroids, and how do they function in the body?

A

A: Steroids are lipids derived from cholesterol, usually secreted by adrenal glands and gonads; they can directly enter cells and affect gene expression, leading to long-lasting effects.

44
Q

Q: How do peptide hormones operate?

A

A: Peptides are made of amino acids, use secondary messengers to enter cells, and primarily bind to membrane receptors, causing changes in protein function and sometimes gene expression.

45
Q

Q: What is the relationship between testosterone and aggression?

A

A: The presence of testosterone increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior, and engaging in aggression can lead to increased testosterone production.

46
Q

Q: What behavioral observations were made during the football match between Brazil and Italy regarding testosterone levels?

A

A: 11 out of 12 Brazilian fans exhibited increased testosterone levels, while 9 out of 9 Italian fans showed decreased levels.

47
Q

Q: How do environmental selection pressures modify hormonal mechanisms of behavior?

A

A: Different selection pressures lead to modifications in hormonal mechanisms, resulting in variations among species.

48
Q

Q: How does photoperiod influence testosterone levels and behavior in birds?

A

A: Longer photoperiods can lead to increased testosterone levels, affecting gene expression and resulting in more territorial behaviors.

49
Q

Q: What is meant by activational effects of hormones?

A

A: Activational effects are short-term, reversible impacts that occur in fully developed organisms, triggering specific behaviors.

50
Q

Q: What are organizational effects of hormones?

A

A: Organizational effects are long-term, irreversible changes on tissue differentiation and development that influence behavior.

51
Q

Q: How does the age of a mouse at birth impact aggressive behavior in females?

A

A: Female mice positioned between male fetuses in utero may be exposed to testosterone, resulting in increased aggression and altered sexual characteristics.

52
Q

Q: What are blue females in terms of prenatal hormone exposure?

A

A: Blue females are female mice positioned between two males, which exposes them to higher testosterone levels and is linked to increased aggression.

53
Q

Q: What were the findings regarding the impact of testosterone on the survival of young in mice?

A

A: Pregnant mice given testosterone injections showed increased longevity in male offspring, while there was no difference observed in females.

54
Q

Q: What are glucocorticoid steroids, and how do they affect memory?

A

A: Glucocorticoid steroids affect memory consolidation and can demonstrate an inverted U-shaped effect on memory performance based on dosage.

55
Q

Q: What are the four types of questions proposed by Tinbergen to understand behaviors?

A

A: Mechanistic, Ontogenetic/Developmental, Functional, and Phylogenetic.

56
Q

Q: What factors are considered in the ontogenetic/developmental question?

A

A: The genetic and environmental factors that guide the development of a trait.

56
Q

Q: What does the mechanistic question focus on regarding trait expression?

A

A: It investigates the underlying neural, physiological, and psychological mechanisms.

57
Q

Q: How does the functional question evaluate a trait?

A

A: It examines the trait in terms of its effects on survival and reproduction.

58
Q

Q: What does the phylogenetic question aim to uncover?

A

A: It unravels the evolutionary history of a species to evaluate the structure of a trait in the context of ancestral features.

59
Q

Q: How do passerine songs function in mating contexts?

A

A: Songs are complex species-specific signals used by males to attract females and repel rivals, with various repertoires depending on species.

60
Q

Q: What are the key differences in song-learning programs among passerine species?

A

A: Differences include sensitive period duration, the number of songs retained, imitation versus improvisation, and the need for early exposure to conspecific song.

61
Q

Q: What is the auditory template hypothesis in song learning?

A

A: It proposes that birds possess innate templates for song that guide their development, influenced by genetic and environmental factors, with specific critical periods for learning.

62
Q

Q: How do song dialects function in species like white-crowned sparrows?

A

A: Individuals from different geographical areas exhibit distinct dialects, suggesting regional variations in song patterns that can indicate individual identity and local lineage.

63
Q

Q: In many species like zebra finches, who typically sings, and what anatomical differences correlate with this behavior?

A

A: Only males typically sing, and their singing behavior correlates with measurable anatomical differences in the brain, possibly due to organizational effects of steroid hormones.

64
Q

Q: Describe the concept of overproduction and selective attrition in songbird learning.

A

A: Juveniles learn more songs during the plastic phase than are expressed in adulthood, leading to overproduction of songs, with selective attrition determining which songs remain.

65
Q

Q: What are the three key neural functions required for vocal behavior in songbirds?

A

A: 1) Producing motor commands for song, 2) Perceptual learning of sounds including memorization, 3) Evaluating auditory feedback and modifying vocal output.

66
Q

Q: How do song-selective neurons in birds respond to their own songs compared to other stimuli?

A

A: These neurons respond more strongly to the bird’s own song and the tutor song than to other complex auditory stimuli, demonstrating high selectivity.

67
Q

Q: What experimental methods were used to examine the neural basis of song learning in swamp sparrows?

A

A: Researchers recorded vocalizations during sensorimotor song development and measured neural responses to song stimuli, assessing learning and retention.

68
Q

Q: How do HVc neurons in songbirds demonstrate selective response patterns during song playback?

A

A: HVc neurons can respond specifically to a single song type in a bird’s repertoire, showing high specificity in auditory processing and discrimination.

69
Q

Q: What similarities exist between bird song learning and human speech development?

A

A: Both processes rely on learned sensorimotor control and auditory feedback and have similar neural substrates, highlighting the importance of social and environmental listening experiences.

70
Q

Q: How do testosterone levels influence song learning and crystallization in songbirds?

A

A: Testosterone levels peak during sensorimotor learning and crystallization, with treatment affecting the timing and complexity of song crystallization.

71
Q

Q: What role do steroid hormone receptors play in the song system of birds?

A

A: Steroid hormone receptors, particularly enriched in the song motor pathway and LMAN, suggest that testosterone could directly influence structural changes in song system neurons, affecting plasticity.

72
Q

Q: Which extinct birds in New Zealand were probable seed dispersers?

A

A: Kakapo, moa, and takahe.

72
Q

Q: How do birds contribute to seed dispersal, and what has happened to this process in New Zealand?

A

A: Birds forage on fruit and may disperse seeds through excretion if they do not crush them. The global decline in bird populations has led to declining plants that rely on birds for dispersal.

73
Q

Q: Why is colonization and dispersal important for ecosystems?

A

A: It aids in recovering extinct subpopulations, promotes genetic mixing at both species and ecological levels, and helps escape harmful changes to the environment.

74
Q

Q: What is notable about alpine systems in New Zealand regarding plant dispersal?

A

A: Alpine systems function like islands, requiring long-distance transfer of seeds due to their fragmented landscapes, and have a high level of endemism in alpine plants.

75
Q

Q: What were the observed benefits of falcon presence in vineyards based on the study?

A

A: Falcon presence reduced the number of grape-removing pest birds, decreased both the incidence of removed and pecked grapes, and enhanced chick survival rates compared to hill nests.

76
Q

Q: What are the implications of kea’s decline on alpine ecosystems?

A

A: Kea are the dominant dispersers for fleshy-fruited flora in alpine ecosystems, and their decline could lead to the extinction of these plant species, making kea conservation vital.

77
Q

Q: Describe the behavior of the New Zealand falcon (kārearea) in vineyards as a pest control measure.

A

A: Kārearea help control introduced pest birds that damage grapes, leading to significant reductions in grape damage and improved vineyard conditions.

78
Q

Q: How did supplementary feeding affect the chick survival of kārearea in vineyards?

A

A: Chicks in vineyards receiving supplementary food were fed more and had higher chances of survival compared to those in hill nests, indicating clear benefits from this practice.

79
Q

Q: What are the overall conclusions drawn regarding falcons and their role in vineyards?

A

A: Falcon presence reduces pest bird abundance and grape damage while improving chick survival and nest attendance, indicating the ecological benefits of integrating conservation efforts in agricultural practices.

biol272 (6 decks)

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