Weeks 7-12 Flashcards
Joint reasons
multiple reasons within an overall argument that are related to each other, and to some extent are mutually supporting.
Independent reasons
support the conclusion (one hopes), but are not strongly related to each other, and must be considered separately. Multiple weak reasons do not add up to one strong reason.
intermediate conclusion
In longer lines of reasoning, groups of related reasons will often be presented close together in sets. Each set of related reasons will then be used to support an intermediate conclusion. A series of intermediate conclusions will then support a final conclusion.
Assumptions
are (often unstated) ideas that are taken for granted. They are not reasons, but underlie reasons; if the assumption is wrong, the reason is invalid.
A fallacy
a form of argument that may be superficially persuasive, but that is nevertheless invalid
Faulty cause (post hoc ergo propter hoc)
Assumption that because one thing comes after another, it must be caused by it
Since I started long-distance running, I’ve put on 20 pounds and my hair has started going grey. That proves running is bad for me.
the list of fallacies
Faulty cause Hasty generalization Bifurcation (black and white thinking) Ad hominem (damning the source) Equivocation straw man
Hasty generalization
A broad generalization is made based on a small and perhaps unrepresentative sample
John Smith is a politician, and he got caught taking bribes. That proves all politicians are crooks.
Bifurcation (black and white thinking)
The assumption that two categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive.
“Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists.” (George W. Bush)
Ad hominem (damning the source)
Attempting to discredit an argument by discrediting the source of the argument.
Example: Hitler was a vegetarian. That proves vegetarianism is no good.
Equivocation
Using a word in two different ways in two different parts of the argument.
Neoclassical economics assumes people are rational. Therefore, if people don’t act the way neoclassical economics predicts they should, people must be irrational.
straw man
You set up an extreme or very weak version of the other person’s argument and refute that, instead of trying to refute the original argument.
My opponent wants to invoke the right to bear arms to oppose my attempts at gun control. I guess my opponent wants to see mental patients with artillery in their garage
Appeal to authority
Justifying a claim by citing the approval of a widely respected or admired individual or group, even if that person is not an expert in the field.
Professor Jones has a Nobel Prize in physics, and he says vitamin C is great for colds.
heuristics
Nobody, including the most famous of thinkers, thinks everything through in a systematic, step-by-step manner. Instead, people use a variety of shortcuts. These shortcuts sometimes lead to erroneous conclusions, but they often save tremendous amounts of time. These shortcuts are called .
The point is not that these heuristics are wrong, the point is that we should be aware of them, so we can double-check conclusions we come to.
Please note that most people use these heuristics without being aware of it.
Some basic heuristics
The affect heuristic The availability heuristic Hindsight bias Self-serving bias, overconfidence, and illusions of control Correspondence bias (a.k.a. fundamental attribution error) Story bias Truthiness Just world beliefs Probability neglect Regression toward the mean Confirmation bias
The affect heuristic
If you feel positive emotions about an object or issue position, you will tend to assume that the object or issue position is good and that all things about it are good. Similarly, if you feel negative emotions about an object or issue position, you will tend to assume that the object or issue position is bad, and that all things about it are bad.
Why it sometimes works:
Our emotions are often grounded in our past experiences with the object or issue position.
Why it can lead to problems:
Our emotions are often irrational and based on fairly trivial aspects of a situation.
Even when an object really is good, it does not mean that all aspects are good.
Example: vaccinations
The availability heuristic
When trying to decide how likely it is that an event will occur (or how frequently it occurs), try to think of examples. If many examples come to mind easily, conclude that it is likely to happen. If you have considerable difficulty thinking of examples, conclude that it is unlikely to occur.
Why it sometimes works:
Events that occur frequently will generally be easier to think of examples of than events that occur infrequently.
Why it can lead to problems:
Other factors can make it easy to recall examples besides how frequently the event occurs.
Vividness
Being on the news
Hindsight bias
Hindsight bias is the tendency, when one knows the answer to a question or the outcome of a process, to believe that one would have known that answer or the outcome much earlier than naïve observers actually do.
Example: highly pixelated pictures gradually becoming clearer
Example: A lot more people claimed they saw the Great Recession coming after it occurred than claimed it was going to happen before it occurred.
Why it’s a problem: You will tend to think things that are obvious to you are obvious to other people, and will have low opinions of people who fail to see the “obvious”
Self-serving bias, overconfidence, and illusions of control
In a wide variety of contexts, the average person thinks they are better than average, have more control over the situation than they really do, and believe that their future prospects are better than average.
Why this is a problem: we can’t all be better than average.
Why this may not be problem in all circumstances: sometimes positive illusions may be helpful.
Correspondence bias (a.k.a. fundamental attribution error)
Correspondence bias is the tendency to assume that a person’s actions tell us a lot about what kind of person they are.
Why this sometimes works: people’s actions are partly determined by their strengths, weaknesses, motives, beliefs, personalities, etc.
Why this sometimes fails to work: people’s actions are partly determined by the circumstances in which they find themselves.
Story bias
We tend to make sense of the world by means of stories that link different facts and events together into a meaningful narrative. It’s wonderful that we have a way of making sense of the world, but unfortunate that we are often very uncritical of stories we hear.
Example: Ronald Reagan’s welfare queens.
A broader problem: Even if they aren’t just fabricated, stories are cobbled together out of a selection of facts. Sometimes the facts are not actually connected, and on other occasions important and connected facts are left out.
One example: conspiracy theories.
Truthiness
Often when we encounter a factual claim, we do not carefully evaluate the claim, but instead consult our gut feelings.
Why this sometimes works: our gut feelings are sometimes based on real experiences.
Why this often fails to work: our gut feelings are often based on factors that have nothing to do with truth, such as whether the claim is easy to read/understand or whether the claim is accompanied by a picture.
Just world beliefs
Just world beliefs are beliefs that people generally get what they deserve.
The positive side: People who believe this will try to be the sort of people who deserve to have good things happen to them.
The negative side: People who believe this will tend to believe that victims of misfortune actually deserve their fate.
Probability neglect
Humans are not good at assessing or thinking about probabilities. They feel most comfortable when an event is certain or impossible, and when the probability falls between those extremes, they often treat is as if it is 0.5
A related problem: Gambler’s fallacy is the belief that if an improbable event has just occurred, it is very unlikely to occur again soon, or that if a moderately likely event has not occurred for a while, that it is now “due” and therefore more likely to occur.
Why these problems with probability are bad: people make a lot of bad decisions about lottery tickets, insurance, and other probability-related phenomena.
Regression toward the mean
When something exceptional happens in a given time period, chances are it will revert to a more normal state in a subsequent time period.
This also happens when you compare children with their parents, etc.
An example: the “sophomore slump” in hockey
Confirmation bias
Probably the biggest enemy of critical thinking
Confirmation bias is the tendency, when asked to determine whether a proposition is true or false, to search for evidence that the proposition is true and ignore or even actively avoid evidence that it is false.
Falsificationism
It is impossible to prove universal generalizations (including scientific laws) true.
It is possible to prove them false (if they are in fact false, obviously).
Therefore, the goal of a science is to try really hard to prove its own generalizations false.
If a generalization has withstood many attempts to prove it false, then it is considered provisionally acceptable.
The moral for individuals who are not scientists: always consider the possibility that things you believe may be wrong. Look for evidence that they could be wrong, take that evidence seriously, and come to a cautious conclusion about whether you are right or not.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
many physiological reactions to stress are the same regardless of the nature of the stressor
Stressors
Events in the environment that pose some sort of challenge (can also be positive events)
empirical claims
arguments that assume
Appraisals
A person’s judgments about whether a situation is threatening or challenging, how severe the threat or challenge is, whether the person has resources available to meet the challenge, etc.
Stress response
Various physiological changes (sympathetic arousal (“fight or flight”), release of catecholamines and glucocorticoids)
Types of stressors
Cataclysmic events
Solidarity
Acute personal stressors
These affect only you, and so you may get less sympathy
Background stressors
Daily hassles
These are common but very small stressors
Ambient stressors
These are stressors that are continuously present
Primary appraisals
Harm or loss
Assessment that one is worse off than before
Threat
Assessment that one is not yet worse off, but maybe will be soon
Challenge
A threat that also has a possibility of a positive outcome
Secondary appraisals
Appraisal of the resources one has available to meet the threat/challenge
Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the ability to do a certain type of task well
High self-efficacy can reduce the stress response
Stress response
Fight or flight response
Catecholamines (e.g adrenaline) secreted quickly
Partly responsible for “fight or flight” response
Glucocortcoids (e.g. cortisol) secreted more slowly
Anti-inflammatory agents that also suppress immune system
Long term stress reaction
May not be all that negative if intermittent
Very negative effects of constant stress
Suppression of immune system
Many diseases are related to stress
Exhaustion
coping
Problem-focused coping
Note that much of this course is about solving the problems of being a student: use these techniques!
Emotion-focused coping
Seeking social support
Perceived control and coping
People will engage in problem focused coping when they perceive themselves as having high levels of control over the situation, the other two more when they perceive themselves as having low levels of control
Types of social support
Emotional (a shoulder to cry on)
Esteem (someone who makes you feel good about yourself)
Informational (someone who provides useful information)
Tangible/instrumental (practical help)
Network support (being part of a social network)
Internal locus of control
People believe they have a high degree of control over important aspects of their own lives
People with this trait are typically more stress-resistant
Watch out for John Henryism (extreme belief that all problems can be solved with hard work)
Dysfunctional if in fact problems are truly uncontrollable
External locus of control
People believe outside forces exert a great deal of control over important aspects of their lives
These people are much more likely to be vulnerable to stress
Mental illness
Dysfunction
Distress
Deviance
Note that all this means mental illness is socially constructed (see homosexuality and drapetomania)
Mental health
Effective functioning
Subjective well-being (more on this later)
Fitting well with one’s social surroundings
Anxiety disorders
Simple phobias Irrational fear of specific object Treatment: systematic desensitization Construction of anxiety hierarchy Training in relaxation Exposure to increasingly anxiety-provoking situations while practicing relaxation
Generalized anxiety disorder
Free-floating anxiety can last weeks or months
Panic disorder (and agoraphobia)
Sudden panic attacks
Fear of panic attack can lead to agoraphobia (fear of public places)
Depression
Core symptom: negative mood
Other symptoms
Cognitive: negative thoughts about self, world, future
Emotional: sadness, hopelessness, anxiety, anhedonia
Somatic: change in appetite, change in sleep, psychomotor agitation or retardation, weight change
Motivational: lack of drive and interest, inability to focus, inability to initiate
Bipolar disorder
Alternating mania and depression
Why mania is even more problematic than depression
Schizophrenia
Not to be confused with dissociative identity disorder (multiple personalities) Schizophrenia was formerly divided into subtypes Symptoms of schizophrenia Delusions Delusions of persecution Delusions of grandeur Hallucinations, especially auditory Blunted, flat, or inappropriate affect Disorganized thought and language Catatonia Withdrawal
