Weeks 1-6 Flashcards
Empirical Methods
Approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation.
Ethics
Professional guidelines that offer researchers a template for making decisions that protect research participants from potential harm and that help steer scientists away from conflicts of interest or other situations that might compromise the integrity of their research.
Hypotheses
A logical idea that can be tested.
Systematic observation
The careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it. Observations provide the basic data that allow scientists to track, tally, or otherwise organize information about the natural world.
Theories
Groups of closely related phenomena or observations.
Anecdotal evidence
A piece of biased evidence, usually drawn from personal experience, used to support a conclusion that may or may not be correct.
Causality
In research, the determination that one variable causes—is responsible for—an effect.
Correlation
In statistics, the measure of relatedness of two or more variables.
Data (also called observations)
In research, information systematically collected for analysis and interpretation.
Deductive reasoning
A form of reasoning in which a given premise determines the interpretation of specific observations (e.g., All birds have feathers; since a duck is a bird, it has feathers).
Distribution
In statistics, the relative frequency that a particular value occurs for each possible value of a given variable.
Empirical
Concerned with observation and/or the ability to verify a claim.
Fact
Objective information about the world.
Falsify
In science, the ability of a claim to be tested and—possibly—refuted; a defining feature of science.
Generalize
In research, the degree to which one can extend conclusions drawn from the findings of a study to other groups or situations not included in the study.
Hypothesis
A tentative explanation that is subject to testing.
Induction
To draw general conclusions from specific observations.
Inductive reasoning
A form of reasoning in which a general conclusion is inferred from a set of observations (e. g., noting that “the driver in that car was texting; he just cut me off then ran a red light!” (a specific observation), which leads to the general conclusion that texting while driving is dangerous).
Levels of analysis
In science, there are complementary understandings and explanations of phenomena.
The idea that a single phenomenon can be explained at different levels simultaneously.
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
In statistics, a test created to determine the chances that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis were actually true.
Assesses the probability that the collected data would be the same even if there were no relationship between the variables in the study.
Objective
Being free of personal bias.
Population
In research, all the people belonging to a particular group (e.g., the population of left handed people).
Probability
A measure of the degree of certainty of the occurrence of an event.
Probability values
In statistics, the established threshold for determining whether a given value occurs by chance.
Pseudoscience
Beliefs or practices that are presented as being scientific, or which are mistaken for being scientific, but which are not scientific (e.g., astrology, the use of celestial bodies to make predictions about human behaviors, and which presents itself as founded in astronomy, the actual scientific study of celestial objects. Astrology is a pseudoscience unable to be falsified, whereas astronomy is a legitimate scientific discipline).
Representative
In research, the degree to which a sample is a typical example of the population from which it is drawn.
Sample
In research, a number of people selected from a population to serve as an example of that population.
Scientific theory
An explanation for observed phenomena that is empirically well-supported, consistent, and fruitful (predictive).
Type I error
In statistics, the error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.
In reality there is no relationship between variables but the researcher finds that there is.
Type II error
In statistics, the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
In reality there is a relationship between the variables but the researcher finds no relationship.
Value
Belief about the way things should be.
Behaviorism
- The study of behavior.
- rejected any ref. to the mind and viewed overt and observable actions as the proper subject matter of psychology
Cognitive psychology
The study of mental processes.
Consciousness
Awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Empiricism
The belief that knowledge comes from experience.
Eugenics
The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits.
Flashbulb memory
A highly detailed and vivid memory of an emotionally significant event.
Functionalism
A school of American psychology that focused on the utility of consciousness.
Functionalists were interested in the activities of the mind – what the mind DOES.
Gestalt psychology
An attempt to study the unity of experience.
Belief that studying the whole of any experience is richer than studying individual aspects of it.
Precursor to cognitive psychology.
Individual differences
Ways in which people differ in terms of their behavior, emotion, cognition, and development.
Introspection
A method of focusing on internal processes.
Neural impulse
An electro-chemical signal that enables neurons to communicate.
Practitioner-Scholar Model
A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes clinical practice.
Psychophysics
Study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the perception of those stimuli.
Realism
A point of view that emphasizes the importance of the senses in providing knowledge of the external world.
Scientist-practitioner model
A model of training of professional psychologists that emphasizes the development of both research and clinical skills.
Structuralism
A school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience.
What the mind IS.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available.
Cause-and-effect
Related to whether we say one variable is causing changes in the other variable, versus other variables that may be related to these two variables.
Confidence interval
An interval of plausible values for a population parameter; the interval of values within the margin of error of a statistic.
Distribution
The pattern of variation in data.
Generalizability
Related to whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger population.
Margin of error
The expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for 95% confidence level.
Parameter
A numerical result summarizing a population (e.g., mean, proportion).
Population
A larger collection of individuals that we would like to generalize our results to.
P-value
The probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample, or more extreme, under a conjecture (an opinion or conclusion formed on the basis of incomplete information) about the larger population or process.
Random assignment
Using a probability-based method to divide a sample into treatment groups.
Random sampling
Using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population.
Reliability
The consistency of a measure.
Sample
The collection of individuals on which we collect data.
Statistic
A numerical result COMPUTED from a sample (e.g., mean, proportion).
Statistical significance
A result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to arise by chance alone.
Validity
The degree to which a measure is assessing what it is intended to measure.
Confounds
Factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment.
Correlation
Measures the association between two variables, or how they go together.
Dependent variable
The variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experiment.
Experimenter expectations
When the experimenter’s expectations influence the outcome of a study.
Independent variable
The variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment.
Longitudinal study
A study that follows the same group of individuals over time.
Operational definitions
How researchers specifically measure a concept.
Participant demand
When participants behave in a way that they think the experimenter wants them to behave.
Placebo effect
When receiving special treatment or something new affects human behavior.
Quasi-experimental design
An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions. Relies on existing group memberships (ex: married vs single) as independent variables.
Random assignment
Assigning participants to receive different conditions of an experiment by chance.
Ambulatory assessment
An overarching term to describe methodologies that assess the behavior, physiology, experience, and environments of humans in naturalistic settings.
Daily Diary method
A methodology where participants complete a questionnaire about their thoughts, feelings, and behavior of the day at the end of the day.
Day reconstruction method (DRM)
A methodology where participants describe their experiences and behavior of a given day retrospectively upon a systematic reconstruction on the following day.
Ecological momentary assessment
An overarching term to describe methodologies that repeatedly sample participants’ real-world experiences, behavior, and physiology in real time.
Ecological validity
The degree to which a study finding has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life.
Electronically activated recorder, or EAR
A methodology where participants wear a small, portable audio recorder that intermittently records snippets of ambient sounds around them.
Experience-sampling method
A methodology where participants report on their momentary thoughts, feelings, and behaviors at different points in time over the course of a day.
External validity
The degree to which a finding generalizes from the specific sample and context of a study to some larger population and broader settings.
Full-cycle psychology
A scientific approach whereby researchers start with an observational field study to identify an effect in the real world, follow up with laboratory experimentation to verify the effect and isolate the causal mechanisms, and return to field research to corroborate their experimental findings.
Generalize
Generalizing, in science, refers to the ability to arrive at broad conclusions based on a smaller sample of observations. For these conclusions to be true the sample should accurately represent the larger population from which it is drawn.
Internal validity
The degree to which a cause-effect relationship between two variables has been unambiguously established.
Linguistic inquiry and word count
A quantitative text analysis methodology that automatically extracts grammatical and psychological information from a text by counting word frequencies.
Lived day analysis
A methodology where a research team follows an individual around with a video camera to objectively document a person’s daily life as it is lived.
White coat hypertension
A phenomenon in which patients exhibit elevated blood pressure in the hospital or doctor’s office but not in their everyday lives.
trigger warnings – why are they more bad than good?
- studies indicate that trigger warnings have negative impacts – ppl who viewed trigger warnings before being shown something felt stress and anxiety before even seeing it
- trigger warnings promote avoidance instead of learning to cope and overcome
- can impact ppl’s beliefs about their resilience vs. vulnerability
list some methods for coping
- self care (sleep, hygiene, nutrition, exercise, quality time, alone time)
- deep breathing
- mental grounding
- physical grounding
- exercise
- healthy eating
what is science?
science is the use of systematic observation to acquire knowledge
what are the 4 essential elements of science?
- systematic observation is the core of science
- observations lead to hypotheses we can test
- science is democratic
- science is cumulative
what are the 5 ethics guidelines that psychologists follow for their research?
- informed consent (ppl should know when they’re involved in research and what they are doing)
- confidentiality
- privacy (researchers should not do research in the participant’s private spaces, i.e. their bedroom, and should not ask for confidential info. about them from others (i.e. school officials) without their permission)
- benefits (is the research worth it when compared against potential risks to the participant?)
- deception (researchers can’t lie about what they’re testing. if it is necessary for the participant to not know, then they must be debriefed later.)
what are the 5 features that distinguish scientific thinking from everyday thinking?
- Accuracy (explanations and theories match real world observations)
- Consistency (a theory has few exceptions and shows agreement w/ other theories within and across disciplines)
- Scope (extent to which a theory can be applied to many different situations)
- Simplicity (when multiple explanations are squally good at explaining the data, the simplest should be selected)
- Fruitfulness (the usefulness of the theory in guiding new research by predicting new and testable relationships)
why can science be distinguished from pseudoscience?
b/c scientific claims can be falsified and pseudoscientific claims cannot
Describe the process of NHST
- the null hypothesis involves 2 unrelated variables
- the alternate hypothesis states that the 2 variables ARE related
- the researcher compares what they expected to find w/ what they actually found to determine if they should falsify the null hypothesis
- this is achieved by looking at the distribution of the data
accurate detection
the researcher’s conclusion mirror’s reality OR when the researcher finds no evidence for a phenomenon, but that phenomenon doesn’t exist irl anyways
what are the precursors of psychology?
philosophy and physiology
what are the 4 key components of statistical thinking?
- Planning the study: ask a testable research question, ex: how many ppl were recruited for the study, how were they recruited, and from where?
- Examining the data: What are the appropriate ways to examine the data? What patterns do you see? Is there evidence for reliability and validity?
- Inferring from the data: what are valid statistical methods for drawing inferences beyond the data you’ve collected?
- Drawing conclusions: based on what you learned from your data, what conclusions can you draw? Can you draw a cause and effect conclusions about your treatments?
what would a very small p-value mean for a study?
- it could be used as strong evidence that the study did not go one way or the other b/c of random chance
level of significance
a result is statistically significant if it is unable to arise by chance alone
what does it mean if the p-value is smaller than the level of significance?
then we know that the result of the study didn’t occur by chance alone
what is the benefit of using random assignment in a study?
- it limits bias and produces groups that are as similar as possible
- minimizes compounds
what are the two groups that research can be divided into?
experimental and correlational research
what does experimental research involve?
- operational definitions of concepts
- manipulate the independent variable and see the effect it has on the dependent variable
- random assignment is important to minimize confounds
double-blind prodcedure
neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition the participant is in – the experimenter gets the results later, this way the researcher is also blind and their expectations don’t interfere with results
what does correlational design involve?
- scientists passively observe/measure phenomena
- they do not interfere/change behaviour, just identify patterns of relationships
- examines only 2 variables
what are problems with correlation designs?
- correlation does not mean causation
- from correlation alone, we can’t be certain that the relationship exists
- perhaps there is an unthought of 3rd variable causing the results to be the way they are
participant observation
involves the researcher embedding themselves into a group in order to study its dynamics – usually participants know that there is a researcher among them, though not always
case study
involves an intensive examination of specific individuals or specific contexts
- ex: if there are only a few ppl with a specific brain injury, then a researcher may do an intensive study on just one patient (put through tests)
narrative analysis
centers around the study of stories and personal accounts of people, groups, or cultures
it is important for researchers to find a balance between ensuring internal and external validity in their studies – it is very hard to achieve both in a single study. why is this important?
if an experiment is very far-off from what a person might experience in everyday life, you may question how useful its findings really are
Adoption study
A behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents.
Behavioral genetics
The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior.
Heritability coefficient
An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals.
OR
Measures how strongly differences among individuals are related to differences among their genes – but be careful – these numbers are very difficult to interpret
Quantitative genetics
Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms.
OR
scientific discipline in which similarities between individuals are analyzed based on how biologically related they are
Twin studies
A behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins.
Adaptations
Evolved solutions to problems that historically contributed to reproductive success.
Error management theory (EMT)
A theory of selection under conditions of uncertainty in which recurrent cost asymmetries of judgment or inference favor the evolution of adaptive cognitive biases that function to minimize the more costly errors.
OR
deals with the evolution of how we think, make decisions, and evaluate uncertain situations
Evolution
Change over time. Is the definition changing?
Gene Selection Theory
The modern theory of evolution by selection by which differential gene replication is the defining process of evolutionary change.
Intersexual selection
A process of sexual selection by which evolution (change) occurs as a consequences of the mate preferences of one sex exerting selection pressure on members of the opposite sex.
Intrasexual competition
A process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete with each other, and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex.
Natural selection
Differential reproductive success as a consequence of differences in heritable attributes.
Psychological adaptations
Mechanisms of the mind that evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction; conceptualized as information processing devices.
Sexual selection
The evolution of characteristics because of the mating advantage they give organisms.
Sexual strategies theory
A comprehensive evolutionary theory of human mating that defines the menu of mating strategies humans pursue (e.g., short-term casual sex, long-term committed mating), the adaptive problems women and men face when pursuing these strategies, and the evolved solutions to these mating problems.
DNA methylation
Covalent modifications of mammalian DNA occurring via the methylation of cytosine, typically in the context of the CpG dinucleotide.
DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)
Enzymes that establish and maintain DNA methylation using methyl-group donor compounds or cofactors. The main mammalian DNMTs are DNMT1, which maintains methylation state across DNA replication, and DNMT3a and DNMT3b, which perform de novo methylation.
Epigenetics
The study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic marks include covalent DNA modifications and posttranslational histone modifications.
Epigenome
The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks.
Gene
A specific deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence that codes for a specific polypeptide or protein or an observable inherited trait.
Genome-wide association study (GWAS)
A study that maps DNA polymorphisms in affected individuals and controls matched for age, sex, and ethnic background with the aim of identifying causal genetic variants.
Genotype
The DNA content of a cell’s nucleus, whether a trait is externally observable or not.
Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs)
HATs are enzymes that transfer acetyl groups to specific positions on histone tails, promoting an “open” chromatin state and transcriptional activation. HDACs remove these acetyl groups, resulting in a “closed” chromatin state and transcriptional repression.
Histone modifications
Posttranslational modifications of the N-terminal “tails” of histone proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation. These modifications include acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation, sumoylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation.
Identical twins
Two individual organisms that originated from the same zygote and therefore are genetically identical or very similar. The epigenetic profiling of identical twins discordant for disease is a unique experimental design as it eliminates the DNA sequence-, age-, and sex-differences from consideration.
Phenotype
The pattern of expression of the genotype or the magnitude or extent to which it is observably expressed—an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behavior.
OR
An observable characteristic as a result of genotype expression
Chunk
The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.
Classical conditioning
Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.
Encoding
The pact of putting information into memory.
Habituation
Occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.
Implicit learning
Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
Implicit memory
A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.
Incidental learning
Any type of learning that happens without the intention to learn.
Intentional learning
Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.
Metacognition
Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.
Nonassociative learning
Occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behavior.
Operant conditioning
Describes stimulus-response associative learning.
Perceptual learning
Occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience.
Sensitization
Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure
Transfer-appropriate processing
A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.
Working memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.
Blocking
In classical conditioning, the finding that no conditioning occurs to a stimulus if it is combined with a previously conditioned stimulus during conditioning trials. Suggests that information, surprise value, or prediction error is important in conditioning.
Categorize
To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.
Classical conditioning
The procedure in which an initially neutral stimulus (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (or US). The result is that the conditioned stimulus begins to elicit a conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning is nowadays considered important as both a behavioral phenomenon and as a method to study simple associative learning. Same as Pavlovian conditioning.
Conditioned compensatory response
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.
Conditioned response (CR)
The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Context
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”
Discriminative stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
Extinction
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”
Fear conditioning
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.
Goal-directed behavior
Instrumental behavior that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.
Habit
Instrumental behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.
Instrumental conditioning
Process in which animals learn about the relationship between their behaviors and their consequences. Also known as operant conditioning.
Law of effect
The idea that instrumental or operant responses are influenced by their effects. Responses that are followed by a pleasant state of affairs will be strengthened and those that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. Nowadays, the term refers to the idea that operant or instrumental behaviors are lawfully controlled by their consequences.
