weeks 1-6

Question 1

what is social cognition?

Answer 1

“Social cognition is not a content area, but rather is an approach to understanding social psychology. It is a level of analysis that aims to understand social psychological phenomena by investigating the cognitive processes that underlie them. The major concerns of the approach are the processes involved in the perception, judgment, and memory of social stimuli; the effects of social and affective factors on information processing; and the behavioral and interpersonal consequences of cognitive processes. This level of analysis may be applied to any content area within social psychology, including research on intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, and intergroup processes.”

International Social Cognition Network (http://www.socialcognition.info/)

“Social cognition is the study of how people make sense of other people and themselves. It focuses on how ordinary people think and feel about people – and on how they think they think and feel about people.” (Fiske & Taylor, 2013, p.1)

Question 2

what is mentalism?

Answer 2

importance of cognitive representations

eg. general knowledge, memory of experiences

Question 3

what is the cognitive process in social settings?

Answer 3

the internal process that goes from stimulus to response

• attention & encoding
• information processing
• memory & retrieval
• information use

Question 4

what is the behaviourist approach?

Answer 4

objective, observable stimulus produces objective, observable response

Question 5

what is the social cognition approach?

Answer 5

• a social decision works from stimulus through the person to response
• each step is cognitively mediated

Question 6

1. stimulus

Answer 6

Beyond objective description of stimulus, people’s interpretations of the stimulus matters

Question 7

2. person

Answer 7

The person is a social thinker that engages in thinking processes (e.g., evaluation of the situation, personal goals and values)

Question 8

3. response

Answer 8

Beyond observable behaviours, thoughts are important responses

Question 9

what are the models of social thinker?

Answer 9

Consistency seeker (1950-1960s)

Naïve scientist (1970s)

Cognitive miser (1980s)

Motivated tactician (1990s)

Activated actor (2000s)

Question 10

what is the motivation in consistency seeker?

Answer 10

Drive to reduce discomfort from cognitive discrepancy

Question 11

what is the role of cognition in consistency seeker?

Answer 11

• Cognitions about behaviours and beliefs

- Perceptions of inconsistency

Question 12

examples of consistency seeker

Answer 12

1. Festinger’s (1957) dissonance theory:
   - change cognition so behaviour & cognition align
2. Heider’s (1958) balance theory:
   - idea that social relationships need to be consistent in a balanced state
   - Balanced if all 3 people like each other
   - Balanced if A & B like each other but both hate C because they both think the same way
   - Unbalanced if only A hates B, but B & C are good friends. To bring balance, either C must hate B too or A must like B

Question 13

what is the motivation in naïve scientist?

Answer 13

• prediction & control
• motivation’s role is secondary to cognition (cognition assumed to be the primary force in human behaviour while motivation is not so important)

Question 14

what is the role of cognition in naïve scientist?

Answer 14

• Rational analysis (assumes that humans are able to engage in rational behaviour)
• Cognition plays primary role

Question 15

examples of naïve scientist

Answer 15

Kelley’s (1967) covariation model of attribution:
- Causal attributions are based on the pattern of association between
~ Presence/absence of possible causal factors
~ Presence/absence of behavior

3 factors:

• Consensus (if others do the same thing in the same situation)
• Distinctiveness (if the same person does the same thing in all situations)
• Consistency (if the same person does the same thing repeatedly in the same situation)

internal attribution: low consensus & distinctiveness + high consistency
VS
external attribution: high consensus, distinctiveness & consistency

Question 16

what is the motivation in cognitive miser?

Answer 16

• Rapid, adequate understanding (no need perfect understanding)
• Efficiency in problem solving

Question 17

what is the role of cognition in cognitive miser?

Answer 17

• Cognition system is limited in capacity

- Use of shortcuts to conserve limited cognitive capacity

Question 18

examples of cognitive miser

Answer 18

heuristics in decision making:
- availability heuristics
~ make judgements on what’s readily available in our minds
- representativeness heuristics
~ whether the thing is a representative example of a category

Question 19

what is the motivation in motivated tactician?

Answer 19

someone who shifts between quick-and-dirty cognitively economical tactics and more thoughtful, thorough strategies when processing information, depending on the type and degree of motivation.

• Multiple goals, motives & needs could moderate the cognitive process

Question 20

what is the role of cognition in motivated tactician?

Answer 20

• Interaction goals organise cognitive strategies

- Choice of strategy is not necessarily conscious

Question 21

examples of motivated tactician

Answer 21

dual process models like Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986):
- Central route – in-depth, thoughtful analysis of the central message
~ high motivation, high ability
~ Attitude change depends on strength of argument
~ More permanent change

• Peripheral route – does not pay attention to the message content, heuristic processing
  ~ low motivation, low ability
  ~ Attitude change depends on presence of persuasion cues
  ~ Temporary change

Question 22

what is the motivation in activated actor?

Answer 22

• Cognition serves social survival and thriving purposes
• Social environment contains cues that primes goals that may not reach conscious awareness but nonetheless affects the way we respond to the world

Question 23

what is the role of cognition in activated actor?

Answer 23

• Social environment cues associated cognitions, affect, motivation, behaviour
• Fast, automatic process often not under volitional control

Question 24

examples of activated actor

Answer 24

Implicit associations

• stereotypes
• prejudice
• social tuning

Question 25

methods in social cognition

Answer 25

• Manipulation of thought process
  1. Priming
• conceptual
• mindset
• goal
  2. Cognitive busyness
• Measures of thought process
  3. Explicit self-report
• Thought listing
• Explicit ratings
  4. Implicit measures
• Implicit association test
  5. Social neuroscience
• neuropsychology
• fMRI
• EEG
• EMG
• TMS
• EDR
• CV
• Hormone levels
• Immune functioning
• Genetic analysis

Question 26

Full Automaticity (to control)

Answer 26

Autonomous
Unconscious
Unintentional
Uncontrollable
Goal-independent
Stimulus-driven
Efficient

Very fast process
eg. Breathing as controlled by the autonomous nervous system

Question 27

Full Control

Answer 27

Intentional responses with conscious awareness
- Breathing as voluntary control
Eg. Swimming, running

Question 28

A Continuum from Automaticity to Control

Answer 28

• Applies to a variety of social cognitive processes

E.g., impression formation, causal attribution, persuasion,
stereotyping and prejudice

Question 29

Progression from Automatic to Controlled Processes(Fiske & Taylor, 2020)

Answer 29

1. subliminal priming (preconscious)
2. conscious priming (postconscious)
3. chronic accessibility
4. goal-dependent automaticity
5. intent
6. consciousness

Question 30

what is priming?

Answer 30

a phenomenon whereby exposure to one stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.

• Situational activation of knowledge
• Once the knowledge is activated, it can affect our responses
• No conscious awareness of the effect of the prime on responses, once they are aware of it, then the controlled process will kick in
• Automatic process
• Exposure to a particular stimulus automatically pulls knowledge out
• There is a certain level of control we can exert affecting our responses

Question 31

Subliminal priming

Answer 31

• preconscious automaticity
• prime objectively registers on the senses
• NO CONSCIOUS perception of the prime’s existence
• no conscious awareness of the effect of the prime on responses

Question 32

Conscious (supraliminal) priming

Answer 32

• postconscious automaticity
• prime objectively registers on the senses
• CONSCIOUS perception of the prime’s existence
• no conscious awareness of the effect of the prime on responses

Question 33

Chronic Accessibility

Answer 33

• individual differences in how easily certain knowledge is retrieved from memory
  ~ how easily some knowledge/concepts come to mind in daily life
  ~ something high in chronic accessibility comes to mind easily
  eg. Chords come to mind easily for guitar player
• chronically accessible concepts are habitually used in responses
  proceduralisation: the repeated use of certain knowledge results in automaticity ->possible development of chronic accessibility

Question 34

Goal-dependent automaticity

Answer 34

Goal-dependent automaticity concerns skill and thought processes that require a goal to engage in them. This process is much similar to postconscious in that it requires conscious awareness to be initiated, but after that it can be guided outside of awareness by the unconscious mind.

• conscious intent launches preconscious automaticity (automatic sequence of behaviours)

Question 35

Intent

Answer 35

• intentional thought
• perception of option to think otherwise
  ~ deliberate choice among options
  ~ hard choices are perceived as especially intentional
• enactment of intent
  ~ paying attention to the implementation of intent

Question 36

Consciousness

Answer 36

Social cognitive perspective (Winkielman & Schooler, 2012)

• Being awake
• Being mindful
• Subjectively experienced cognitions
• Available for report and intentional use

Question 37

methods for accessing the content of thoughts

Answer 37

• experience sampling (beeper cues reports of current thoughts during daily life)
• random probes (cued reports of current mind-wandering & awareness of it during lab)
• cognitive response (report thoughts immediately after processing a communication)
• think aloud protocols (verbalise own reactions as process online)
• naturalistic social cognition (report thoughts during interaction when viewing video afterwards)
• role-play participation (imagine self in & report reactions to partial or overheard interactions)

Question 38

what similarity is there among the methods for accessing conscious thoughts?

Answer 38

they all ask people explicitly what they’re thinking about at the end of an event/study

Question 39

weaknesses of accessing conscious thoughts

Answer 39

• Lack of motivation
• Lack of accurate knowledge of what affects one’s behaviour (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977), people cannot tell us what’s the true reason behind their behaviours

Question 40

under what conditions, can people provide useful reports of their conscious thoughts?

Answer 40

• when report is simultaneously done with the thoughts
• when the thoughts are in verbal form, easier
• when the report is on content instead of process

Question 41

dual process models

Answer 41

According to dual-process theories, moral judgments are the result of 2 competing processes: a fast, automatic, affect-driven process & a slow, deliberative, reason-based process. Accordingly, these models make clear and testable predictions about the influence of each system.

• Some models focus on situational & motivational factors that move individuals between automatic and controlled processes
• Some models focus on the controlled process as a correction process
• These models also vary somewhat on the focus of system 1 vs. system 2 characteristics

Question 42

System 1 (Automatic)

Answer 42

Intuitive
Categorical
Holistic
Rapid
Effortless
Parallel
Affective
Associative
Crude
Reflexive
Slow-learning
Rigid
Consistency

Question 43

System 2 (Controlled)

Answer 43

Rational
Individuated
Analytic
Slow
Effortful
Serial
Neutral
Logical
Differentiated
Reflective
Fast-learning
Flexible
Novelty

Question 44

A Dual-Process Model of Reactions to Perceived Stigma Pryor et al. (2004)

Answer 44

The authors propose a theoretical model of individual psychological reactions to perceived stigma. This model suggests that 2 psychological systems may be involved in reactions to stigma across a variety of social contexts. One system is primarily reflexive, or associative, whereas the other is rule based, or reflective. This model assumes a temporal pattern of reactions to the stigmatized, such that initial reactions are governed by the reflexive system, whereas subsequent reactions or “adjustments” are governed by the rule-based system. Support for this model was found in 2 studies. Both studies examined participants’ moment-by-moment approach–avoidance reactions to the stigmatized. The 1st involved participants’ reactions to persons with HIV/AIDS, and the 2nd, participants’ reactions to 15 different stigmatizing conditions.

Question 45

What were the objectives of this paper?

Pryor et al. (2004)

Answer 45

To (a) examine people’s moment-by-moment reactions to perceived stigma (in terms of 0.5-s intervals)
&
(b) investigate the factors that influence ongoing approach–avoidance behaviour at different points in time

Question 46

What were the predictions?

Pryor et al. (2004)

Answer 46

Pryor & his colleagues predicted that people would show more positive reactions to a person with an uncontrollable stigma when given time to consider their responses than when they were asked for immediate responses.

Study 1:

• participants would avoid the person with the criminal stigma as well as the person with HIV/AIDS.
• Unlike the person with HIV/AIDS, however, avoidance of the person with a criminal stigma should not be related to attitudes toward homosexuality or motivations to control prejudice regarding persons with HIV/AIDS.
• Participants were predicted to perform approach behaviour toward the honors student (i.e., to move the cursor closer to his picture)

Study 2:

• early reactions to stigmas would be more highly correlated with feelings of disgust than later reactions
• highly sensitive to disgust should have a more negative immediate reaction (reflexive negative reaction) which should dissipate over time
• those with higher motivation to respond without prejudice will show more approach behaviour after having time for reflection
• Perceived onset controllability of a stigma would have an impact on approach-avoidance behaviour & that this impact would increase over time (Participants should approach one with uncontrollable stigma, avoid one with controllable stigma, & react less extremely to one with a non-perceivable stigma)

Question 47

How did the researchers test their predictions in Studies 1 and 2?
Pryor et al. (2004)

Answer 47

Study 1:

1. questionnaire (to lead participants to believe that the other 3 participants are real)
2. 10s to move cursor toward/away from the picture of other “participants” (participants were instructed to move the cursor rapidly before fine tuning their positions)
   
   • order in which participants are exposed to HIV/AIDS, criminal, honors student was counter balanced
3. HATH & MTCP questionnaires (told that this was unrelated)
4. Funnel debriefing technique (asking the impressions about the study before moving on to more specific questions about the procedures) this is important to double check that the participants were not suspicious during the procedures

Study 2:

1. pre-test to narrow down on the perception of controllability on 36 different healthcare problems
2. participants given the scenario of being a healthcare transportation employee that includes physically helping patients & initiating conversations
3. same computer task (patients vary on the controllability of their stigma)
4. DS & MTCPS questionnaire
5. manipulative check in to confirm the patterns found in the pretest

Question 48

What were the main results in Studies 1 and 2?

Pryor et al. (2004)

Answer 48

Study 1:

• participants who held more negative attitudes toward homosexuality were more likely to keep their distance from persons with HIV/ AIDS stigma.
• This relationship interacted with time showing that the strongest relationships between antigay attitudes and avoidance were within the first few seconds of their responding.
• Consistent with predictions about rule-based processes, participants’ motivations to respond without prejudice led them to move closer to persons with HIV/AIDS stigma.

Study 2:

• Consistent with predictions about reflexive processes, participants who were higher in disgust sensitivity were more likely to keep their distance from persons with stigmas
• This relationship interacted with time showing that the strongest relationships between disgust sensitivity and avoidance were within the first 3.0 s.
• Consistent with predictions about rule-based processes, participants’ motivations to respond without prejudice led them to move closer to persons with stigma. This relationship built more slowly over time.
• Also consistent with predictions about attributional considerations involving a rule-based process, participants approached stimulus persons with uncontrollable stigmas more than those with the more controllable, neutral stigmas only after 5.0 s of reflection.

Question 49

Based on the findings of this article, what have we learned about dual processes in reactions to stigma?Pryor et al. (2004)

Answer 49

• when given time to think, participants were able to correct their prejudices and were more likely to show approach behaviour towards those belonging to stigmatised groups.
• in particular, those who had a higher motivation to control their prejudice, supporting the dual-process model.
• The reflexive process is immediate and can be heavily based on emotions (this can be seen where participants with higher disgust sensitivity tended to have a more immediate negative response to stigmas)

Question 50

more on system 1 characteristics

Answer 50

• rapid, effortless, reflexive
• System 1 concerns instinctive reactions (e.g., disgust) or spontaneous reactions that have developed through learning (e.g., associations)
• More influential in immediate responses
• System 1 is slow-learning, relies on repeated exposure of associative experiences
• System 1 is rigid, the product of associative learning
• Change of System 1 association will take time

Question 51

more on system 2 characteristics

Answer 51

• slow, effortful, reflective
• System 2 requires conscious deliberation of information (e.g., onset controllability)
• More influential over time
• System 2 is fast-learning, acquires detailed new knowledge quickly
• Information can just be received once for it to be used
• System 2 is flexible, can acquire new knowledge and deliberately apply different knowledge depending on situation

Question 52

person perception (Gilbert, Pelham & Krull, 1988)

Answer 52

3 sequential processes in person perception
- Categorization (identify action)
- Characterization (dispositional inference) eg. This person is rude
~Overlearned
~Relatively automatic
~Requires little effort or conscious attention
- Correction (adjustment to situational constraint)
~Deliberate
~Relatively controlled
~Uses significant portion of processing resources
~Can be disrupted by other ongoing cognitive activities

Question 53

How can we show that correction is a controlled process?

Gilbert, Pelham & Krull, 1988

Answer 53

• Disruption of the controlled process
• Cognitive busyness manipulation
  ~engaging in multiple tasks that require cognitive resources
  ~mentally multitasking

Question 54

Cognitive busyness manipulation

Gilbert, Pelham & Krull, 1988

Answer 54

1 task condition:
- Participants told they would make judgments of the target’s personality

2 task condition:
Participants told
(1) they would make judgments of the target’s personality
(2) they would need to recall the 7 discussion topics at the end of the experiment
- Participants are cognitively busier

• Correction is more controlled
• Cognitive busyness disrupts correction (situational constraints) but leaves characterization intact (automatic process so cognitive busyness should not affect characterization)

Question 55

Judgment of trait anxiety

Answer 55

1 task:
- greater judgement of perceived anxiety for relaxing topic

2 tasks:
- Will disregard discussion topic and see person as anxious

• If anxious person talks about anxious topics, we may make dispositional inference

Question 56

results

Gilbert, Pelham & Krull, 1988

Answer 56

• greater perceived trait anxiety on relaxing topic for 1 task
• When participants are cognitively busy in 2 tasks, they don’t have enough cognitive resources for controlled processes
• less difference in perceived trait anxiety between relaxed and anxious topics for 2 tasks

Question 57

dual processing conclusions

Answer 57

• In real-life, our responses are often affected by both processes
• 1 process might be more influential than the other depending on the situation
  ~Amount of processing resource available
  ~Time
  ~Motivation
• Both processes are useful, albeit in different ways
• Occasional errors but are useful

Question 58

Knowledge Representation and Activation

Answer 58

• Mental representations in memory
• Memory structure
• Knowledge activation through priming

Question 59

How do we perceive the world?

Answer 59

• Interplay between information from the outside world & our existing knowledge
• Data-driven process
• Theory-driven process
  Relies on mental representations

Question 60

Mental Representations

Answer 60

• A mental object
• The concepts/ideas that we keep in our memory about things
  ~Mapping with reality varies
  ~Things can be physical or abstract
• In social cognition, the things are often social in nature

2 types:

1. category
2. schema

Question 61

category

Answer 61

• a class of things

- Categorization is the act of placing objects, persons, or events into a certain class

Question 62

Characteristics of categories

Answer 62

• Categories as fuzzy sets
  ~No clear, definite set of features that define membership
  ~Category members are related by family resemblance – sharing of some features/similarity

By prototype

• A prototype is a typical category member
• The central tendency (average) of the set of most common features most probable to be found in category members
• Abstraction of likely features

By exemplar

• Specific examples of actual members
• Drawn from personal experience stored in episodic memory

Question 63

Schema

Answer 63

• An organisational structure for the knowledge that comprises a category
• Features of a category stored in an abstract structure
• Both generalised types and specific instances
• The connections between the features and the rules that govern the features

Question 64

Self-schema (Markus, 1977)

Answer 64

a cognitive framework comprising organised information & beliefs about the self that guides a person’s perception of the world, influencing what information draws the individual’s attention as well as how that information is evaluated and retained.

Question 65

Role schema (Fiske & Taylor, 1984)

Answer 65

norms and expected behaviour from people with a specific role in society
social roles eg. mother

Question 66

Relational schema (Baldwin, 1992)

Answer 66

the beliefs that people have about themselves and their romantic partners. Relational schemas are defined as beliefs and expectations about the self and others which guide subsequent behavior

Question 67

Script (Schank & Abelson, 1977)

Answer 67

a mental road map—containing the basic actions (and their temporal and causal relations) that comprise a complex action

Question 68

Memory Structure

Answer 68

For mental representations to be used, they need to be retrieved from memory

• Associative network
  ~Pieces of knowledge in our memory are linked
  ~Knowledge in memory is associated
  ~A piece of knowledge is a node
  ~Nodes are connected through associations
  ~The connections vary in strength
• Spreading activation
  ~When one node is triggered through cues or use, the activation travels along the associative network to trigger associated nodes
  ~Activated through cues or repeated use
  ~Which nodes get activated depends on strength of association
  ~When activation reaches a threshold, the node will be activated

Question 69

Knowledge Activation

Answer 69

3 key principles of knowledge activation

1. Availability
2. Accessibility
3. Applicability

Question 70

Availability

Answer 70

• Available knowledge is knowledge that is stored in memory

- Available knowledge can lie dormant without being easily retrieved (accessed)

Question 71

Accessibility

Answer 71

• How easy it is to retrieve the knowledge from memory
• The activation potential of available knowledge (Higgins, 1996)

Paths to increased accessibility

• Cued by situation (priming)
• Cumulated through repeated use (chronic accessibility)

Question 72

Applicability

Answer 72

Whether the use of the activated knowledge is appropriate in the situation

Question 73

Temporary accessibility

Answer 73

Priming

• A piece of knowledge in the mind being triggered by a prime (external stimulus)
• The knowledge is temporarily pulled from long-term memory and activated above the threshold
• The knowledge becomes temporarily accessible
• Once you remove the external stimulus, it disappears

Priming effect

• The influence of the activated knowledge on responses
• Downstream behaviours & judgements
• Measure of outcome/response (DV)
• How the activated knowledge is used later / if it affects people’s responses later

Question 74

The classic priming study

Higgins, Rholes, & Jones (1977)

Answer 74

Priming task
- Memorize a list of words
- 2 lists (the primes)
Negative: reckless, conceited, stubborn
Positive: adventurous, self-confident, independent

Priming effect

• Read ambiguous behavioural description of Donald
• Rate the impression of Donald

results:
- those who memorised positive primes formed significantly more positive impressions of Donald than those who memorised negative primes

Question 75

What do we prime?

Answer 75

• semantic concepts
• goals
• cognitive procedure

Question 76

Semantic concepts

Answer 76

• Draw meaning from language
• Involves words that are associated in a logical or linguistic way
• Eg. responding to the word “banana” more rapidly after being primed with the word “yellow”.

Question 77

Goals

Answer 77

• Motivate us with means to achieve a goal
• Cues that trigger goal-directed cognition and behaviour
• Eg. Prime to be rich, caring, etc

Question 78

Cognitive procedure

Answer 78

• The way we engage our cognition to solve a problem & process information
• how the frequent or recent use of certain cognitive procedures on one taskcan lead to a greater propensity to use the same procedures on a subsequent task

Question 79

How do we prime?

Answer 79

Content priming
- Supraliminal priming
~Exposure of stimulus within conscious awareness
- Subliminal priming
~Exposure of stimulus outside of conscious awareness

Procedural priming
- Engagement in a particular cognitive procedure
~ How they solve a problem
~ Go through information processing in order to be primed

Question 80

Individual Construct Accessibility and Subjective Impressions and Recall
Higgins, King & Mavin (1982)

Answer 80

• 2 studies examined the role of individual differences in construct accessibility in subjective impressions and recall of others.
• In the 1st session of each study, subjects’ accessible traits were elicited by asking them to list the characteristics of different people, with accessibility defined as frequency of output (Study 1) or as primacy of output (Study 2).
• In the 2nd session, held 1 or 2 weeks later and supposedly investigating a different issue for a different researcher, subjects read an essay describing the behaviors of a target person.
• The essay contained both accessible trait-related information and inaccessible trait-related information for each subject, with different traits being accessible or inaccessible for different subjects.
• Both studies found that subjects deleted significantly more inaccessible trait-related information than accessible trait-related information in their impressions and in their reproductions of the target information.
• More- over, this effect on impressions and reproductions was evident even 2 weeks after exposure to the target information (Study 1).
• This general effect was not found for the impressions of subjects low in cognitive differentiation, even though it was found for their reproductions (Study 2), which suggests that their active bias toward forming univalent impressions inhibited the passive-accessibility effect.

Question 81

How did the authors operationalise accessibility in Study 1?

Higgins, King & Mavin (1982)

Answer 81

Frequency of output - A trait was considered “accessible” for a subject either if it appeared in the subject’s description of both himself or herself and at least 1 of his or her friends, or if it appeared in the subject’s descriptions of 3 or more friends.

Question 82

How did the authors operationalise accessibility in Study 2?

Higgins, King & Mavin (1982)

Answer 82

Primacy of output
- Inaccessible Traits:
A subject’s inaccessible traits were operationally defined as any trait that did not appear among the subject’s responses to the questions in the first session.

• Accessible Traits:
  A subject’s accessible traits were selected from among those traits the subject listed first in response to the questions in the first session (1 from each of the 4 affect questions & 2 from the frequency question)
• Control:
  Inaccessible traits were chosen from some of the accessible to control for particular traits being representative of both accessible and inaccessible to different participants

Question 83

priming procedures:

Across the 4 tasks, what are some similarities that you can identify in the procedure?

Answer 83

• None of the participants were aware of the effects of the prime
• All tasks were designed to elicit certain thoughts and traits from the participants

Question 84

priming procedures:

What is the major difference between task 1 and task 2?

Answer 84

• Task 2’s prime exposure is subliminal as whereas Task 1 is supraliminal priming
• The dependent measure in task 2 was measured after the entire prime-target process, whereas the dependent measure was measured during the prime-target process in Task 1

Question 85

priming procedures:

What is the major difference between task 1 and task 3?

Answer 85

• The primes used in Task 1 were images of faces, while primes used in Task 2 were words.
• Task 1 was a within subject design while Task 3 was a between subject design.

Question 86

priming procedures:

What is the major difference between task 4 and the other three tasks?

Answer 86

Task 4 uses procedural priming, whereas the other 3 tasks uses content priming.

Question 87

How long does the priming effect last?

Answer 87

Decay of temporary accessibility
- The stronger the activation, the longer one would expect the effect to be
- Strength of activation would depend on
~Frequency of activation (the more frequently we prime something, the stronger the effect)
~Recency of activation (the more recently we prime something, the stronger the effect)

Question 88

What are the take-home messages of Figure 1?

Srull & Wyer (1979)

Answer 88

• The effect of priming decreased with the time interval between the priming task and presentation of the stimulus information to be encoded
• The magnitude of the decrease in priming effects over time is a positive function of the number of times the category was initially activated (both frequency and number)
• When collapsed over delay conditions, the difference in the mean trait ratings of the target between low and high proportion lists was greater for the long questionnaire than for the short questionnaire
• Proportion of hostile priming items had less effect on hostility-related judgments than on evaluative judgments along other dimensions
• The effect of delay interval on judgments along descriptively related dimensions was greater than its effect on judgments along evaluative but not descriptively related dimensions
• The differences in ratings under the 24- hour delay conditions are sufficient to justify the conclusion that the priming task influenced judgments even after a fairly long time interval had elapsed.

Question 89

What are the take-home messages of Figure 2?

Srull & Wyer (1979)

Answer 89

• There were main effects of delay, proportion of hostile priming items, & length of the priming questionnaire.
• Subjects who completed priming questionnaires in which only 20% (6 or 12) of the items were hostility-related made less hostile ratings of both the hostile and ambiguous behaviours than subjects who received no priming at all.
• Taken at face value, this suggests that priming under these conditions had a negative effect after a delay of 24 hours.
• Interaction among delay, number of priming items, & proportion of critical priming items was greater for the ambiguous behaviours than for the other 2 behaviour types
• The priming task influenced judgments even after a fairly long time interval had elapsed

Question 90

What are the take-home messages of Figure 3?

Srull & Wyer (1979)

Answer 90

• Ratings increased monotonically with the number of times concepts related to kindness were previously activated (Main effects for both questionnaire length & proportion of kind priming items in the questionnaire)
• The priming manipulations had very similar effects on ratings of both dimensions that are descriptively related to kindness and those that were evaluative but descriptively unrelated.
• This shows that once the target’s behaviour is encoded in terms of a trait, it will also be assigned other characteristics that are evaluatively associated with this trait
• Priming effects decreased over the time interval between the priming task and stimulus presentations.
  (Magnitude of this decrease was greater when the proportion of kind priming items in the questionnaire was high and when the questionnaire was long)
• These indicate that the effect of delay is a positive function of the number of times that kindness was initially primed
• Moreover, the effect of proportion was significantly greater when the questionnaire was long than when it was short.
• However, the effect of delay on rating is descriptively related dimensions was greater than for rating of evaluatively related dimensions.
• The effect of delay interval in experiment 2 was negligible when the proportion of priming items was low

Question 91

What are the take-home messages of Figure 4?

Srull & Wyer (1979)

Answer 91

• Each level of priming increased the perceived kindness of all 3 types of behaviours.
• However, this effect was much less pronounced after a 24 hour delay
• The estimated kindness of all 3 types of behaviours increased with both questionnaire length & the proportion of kind priming items contained in the questionnaire, while decreasing as a function of the time interval between the priming task & making these estimates
• Effects of time delay increased with both questionnaire length & the proportion of kind priming items

Question 92

The Role of Category Accessibility in the Interpretation of Information About Persons: Some Determinants
and Implications
Srull & Wyer (1979)

Answer 92

• Many personality trait terms can be thought of as summary labels for broad conceptual categories that are used to encode information about an individual’s behaviour into memory.
• The likelihood that a behaviour is encoded in terms of a particular trait category is postulated to be a function of the relative accessibility of that category in memory.
• In addition, the trait category used to encode a particular behaviour is thought to affect subsequent judgments of the person along dimensions to which it is directly or indirectly related.
• To test these hypotheses, subjects first performed a sentence construction task that activated concepts associated with either hostility (Experiment 1) or kindness (Experiment 2).
• As part of an ostensibly unrelated impression formation experiment, subjects later read a description of behaviours that were ambiguous with respect to hostility (kindness) and then rated the target person along a variety of trait dimensions.
• Ratings of the target along these dimensions increased with the number of times that the test concept had previously been activated in the sentence construction task and decreased with the time interval between these prior activations and presentation of the stimulus information to be encoded.
• Results suggest that category accessibility is a major determinant of the way in which social information is encoded into memory and subsequently used to make judgments.

Question 93

Priming effect is stronger when…

Answer 93

• Frequency of activation
• Recency of activation
• Ambiguity of target

Question 94

How long does the priming effect last? pt.2

Answer 94

Postpriming delay has different influence on the effect of semantic prime and goal prime

Question 95

postpriming effect on semantic prime

Answer 95

• Activation dissipates with delay

- Repeated use of activated semantic concept reinforces the activation

Question 96

postpriming effect on goal prime

Answer 96

• Activation becomes stronger with delay
• Once it’s activated, if you don’t do anything about it, it gets stronger
• Eg. the longer you have to wait to eat ice cream, the stronger the activation (you want to eat it)
• Use of activated goal (fulfillment of the goal) reduces the activation
• Eg. Once you eat the ice cream that you’ve been craving, the craving will disappear

Question 97

What kind of effect does temporary accessibility produce?

Answer 97

Assimilation and Contrast effect

Question 98

Assimilation effect

Answer 98

• Response is consistent with the concept being primed
• The common priming effect

Priming procedure:

• Not recalled
• Subtle

Prime:

• Subliminal
• Moderate
• Fluent (easy to see & process)

Prime-target relation:
- Similarities salient

Target:
- Ambiguous

Processing style:

• Low amount of processing (not thinking too much)
• Similarity focus
• Global processing (attention)

Question 99

Contrast effect

Answer 99

• Response is inconsistent with (goes against) the concept being primed

Priming procedure:

• Recalled
• Blatant

Prime:

• Supraliminal
• Extreme
• Disfluent (difficult to see & process)

Prime-target relation:
- Dissimilarities salient

Target:
- Well-defined

Processing style:

• High amount of processing (thinking a lot about the prime)
• Dissimilarity focus
• Local processing (attention)

Question 100

Awareness of the influence as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast
Strack et al (1993)

Answer 100

• subjects had to generate an evaluative judgment about a target person on the basis of his behaviour that had both positive and negative implications.
• In a previous phase of the study that was ostensibly unrelated to the judgment task, the relevant trait categories were primed.
• Subsequently, half of the subjects were reminded of the priming episode.
• Consistent with earlier research (that used memory of the priming events as a correlational measure), a contrast effect was found under the ‘reminding’ condition and assimilation resulted when subjects were NOT reminded of the priming episode.
• This pattern of results is interpreted as the consequence of corrective influences.

Question 101

Explain how the numbers presented in Table 1 illustrate assimilation and contrast effects.

Answer 101

• Assimilation effect when subjects were not reminded of the priming episode
• Contrast effect when subjects were reminded of the priming episode

Ratings of Likeability:

No reminding:
- Subjects who were not reminded of the priming episode rated the target person as more likeable in the positive valence (6.10) than in the negative valence (4.95)

Reminding:
- Subjects who were reminded of the priming episode rated the target person as less likeable in the positive valence (5.60) than in the negative valence (6.95)

Specific trait ratings:

• there was an assimilation effect when subjects were not reminded of the priming episode (6.15) and a contrast effect when they were reminded (5.65) for positive valence prime
• there was an assimilation effect when subjects were not reminded of the priming episode (4.60) and a contrast effect when subjects were reminded (6.91) for negative valence prime.

Valence of Open Answers:

• When no reminder provided for participants, assimilation effect increased (2.87), increasing positive characterisations of “Thomas”.
• When reminders were provided, priming manipulation did not affect the valence of the open judgement (2.55). “

Question 102

Forster, Lieberman & Kuschel (2008) Study 1

Answer 102

Processing style manipulation:

Global processing condition:
- Look at a map as a whole to answer questions about the overall shape of the map

Local processing condition:
- Look at the details of a map to answer questions about them

Control condition:
- Look at both details and overall shape

Semantic prime:
- Word-search puzzle: aggression vs. neutral

Dependent measure:
- Srull & Wyer’s (1979) person perception task

results:

• global processing produced assimilation
• local processing produced contrast.

Question 103

implicit measures

Answer 103

• Measure of elements involved in the automatic process
• Assesses mental content without requiring awareness of the relation between the response and the measured content (Nosek, Hawkins & Frazier, 2011, p. 153)

Question 104

Some characteristics of implicit measures

Answer 104

• Not direct
• Not deliberate
• Not controlled
• No intentional self-assessment

Question 105

examples of implicit measures

Answer 105

• • Facilitation of responses that are consistent with association
• • If a & b are closely linked in our network/have a close association, if we see a, our response towards b will be faster
• • Look at people’s reaction time
• Implicit association test (IAT)
• Lexical decision task
• Evaluative priming
• • Projection of activated valence onto ambiguous stimuli
• • Whether we project a particular valence (+ve/–ve) onto something ambiguous
• Affect misattribution procedure
• • Accessibility guides retrieval
• Word stem completion

Question 106

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Answer 106

• Based on reaction time
• Measures strength of association between concepts
• it is a relative measure
• Target stimuli need to be easily recognised & categorised
• Takes time

Attitude: Attitude object – Evaluation

Identity: Self – Social group (eg. Gender)

Stereotype : generalised beliefs about social groups, Social group – Specific quality

Question 107

Math = Male, Me = Female, Therefore Math ≠ Me

Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald (2002)

Answer 107

• College students, especially women, demonstrated negativity toward math and science relative to arts and language on implicit measures.
• Group membership (being female), group identity (self = female), and gender stereotypes (math = male) were related to attitudes and identification with mathematics.
• Stronger implicit math = male stereotypes corresponded with more negative implicit and explicit math attitudes for women but more positive attitudes for men.
• Associating the self with female and math with male made it difficult for women, even women who had selected math-intensive majors, to associate math with the self.
• These results point to the opportunities and constraints on personal preferences that derive from membership in social groups.

Question 108

What was a trial? What happened in a trial?

Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald (2002)

Answer 108

• Participants were instructed to respond by pressing a key each time an item that represented the category math (e.g., algebra, equations) and the category pleasant (e.g.,peace, love) appeared in the center of the screen
• Each trial consisted of the classification of a single item
• Participants were required to press A key for the categories on the left, and Z for the categories on the right.
• If participants made an error, an X appeared below the item, and they had to correct the error before moving on.

Question 109

What was a block? What happened in a block?

Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald (2002)

Answer 109

• Practice blocks were present to acquaint participants with the process and appropriate key classification
• In each block, participants underwent either 20 (practice) or 40 trials (critical) and discriminated the items in each block.
• Within each block, stimuli appeared in random order, except that in blocks in which both concept and attribute items were presented, trials alternated between presenting target concept and attribute stimuli.

Question 110

How many blocks were there in the IAT? Briefly, what happened in each block?
Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald (2002)

Answer 110

• There were 7 blocks in total. In the 5 practice blocks, there were 20 trials each. In the 2 critical blocks, there were 40 trials each.
• In the 1st block, participants discriminated items representing the target concepts (e.g., math, arts).
• In the 2nd block, participants discriminated attribute items (e.g., pleasant, unpleasant)
• In the 3rd block, participants practiced categorising both target and attribute items at the same time such that pairings were created because a target concept and an attribute were required to share an identical response.
• The 4th block was an identical repeat of the third block.
• In the 5th block, participants practiced discriminating target concepts (i.e. math & arts) again, except that the computer keys representing correct classification were reversed
  In the final practice and critical blocks, participants again categorised both concept and attribute items.

Question 111

critical trials

Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald (2002)

Answer 111

• If I have a very positive attitude towards math, then it would be relatively easy for me to make the same response as math towards pleasant (pressing the same key)
• If I have a negative attitude towards math, then it would be relatively difficult for me to make the same response as math towards pleasant (pressing the same key)
• Having to make responses that are inconsistent with my association is hard

Question 112

limitations of IAT

Answer 112

It is a relative measure

• It does not provide an absolute measure of evaluation toward a single target concept
• Possible solution: Single-category IAT (Task 4 in Collection of Implicit Measure)

It reflects not only personal evaluative associations, but also extrapersonal associations
- Possible solution
Personalised IAT: ‘I like, I don’t like’
Can get a purer measure of association, more personalised

Question 113

Lexical decision task /sequential priming

Answer 113

Words/non-words (fillers) -> lexical decision

• Reaction time as indication of association between prime and target
  ~Faster reaction time, stronger association
• Use beyond measure of attitude

Question 114

Evaluative priming

Answer 114

Positive/negative words -> Positive/negative judgement

a positive or negative target (delight) is preceded by a prime of the same valence (healthy) or of the opposite valence (failure). Usually, participants in these reaction-time tasks are asked to decide whether the target denotes something positive or negative.

• Reaction time as indication of association between prime and valence
  ~Faster reaction time, stronger association
• Measure of attitude

Question 115

Affect misattribution procedure (AMP)

Answer 115

Ambiguous targets -> Positive/negative rating

measures automatically activated responses based on the misattributions people make about the sources of their affect or cognitions.

• Not looking at reaction time
• Rating of ambiguous target as indication of perceived valence of the prime
• Measure of attitude

Question 116

Word stem completion

Answer 116

procedure in which participants are presented with sets of introductory letters and asked to form complete words.

eg.
HA_E

RU_E

Question 117

Implicit vs. Explicit Measures

Answer 117

Assumptions:

• Implicit measures tap the automatic process
• Explicit measures tap the controlled process
• Automatic and controlled processes are distinct
• If the 2 processes have common contributions to the construct, then there should be some correspondence between implicit and explicit measures of the same construct
• If the 2 processes are distinct, implicit and explicit measures of the same construct should not have too high a correspondence

Question 118

Implicit-Explicit Correspondence

Answer 118

High correspondence means positive correlation between implicit & explicit scores

Individuals’ motivation to avoid appearing prejudiced moderates the correspondence between implicit and explicit prejudice

Question 119

Payne, Cheng, Govorun, & Stewart (2005) Experiment 6

Answer 119

• Implicit measure: AMP of racial attitude
• Explicit measure: self-report feelings toward Blacks and Whites
• Motivation to avoid appearing prejudiced
  ~Internal motivation to control prejudice
  ~External motivation to control prejudice
  ~Concern with acting prejudiced
  ~Restraint to avoid dispute

results:

• Individuals’ motivation plays a role
• The correspondence between implicit & explicit attitudes change when individuals have high motivation to avoid appearing prejudiced -> low correspondence
• for individuals with low motivation to avoid appearing prejudiced, we see a high correspondence

Question 120

Possible moderators of correspondence (Nosek, 2007)

Answer 120

Self-presentation
- Weaker correspondence between implicit and explicit attitudes

Perceived distinctiveness of attitudes from norms

• Stronger correspondence between implicit and explicit attitudes
• If people are aware that their own attitudes are distinct from social influence, then they should have better understanding of what the attitudes are

Attitude importance and elaboration

• Attitudes that are important to us
• Stronger correspondence between implicit and explicit attitudes

Methodological consistency

• IAT is a relative measure of attitude (1 thing relative to another) eg. Math vs art
• Both explicit and implicit scores should use a relative measure to create stronger correspondence

Question 121

For Lexical decision task, what was a trial? What happened in a trial?

Answer 121

• Participants are required to make word-nonword judgements to various attributes which were preceded by either a subliminally presented group prime or a subliminally presented neutral prime.
• In a trial, participants were first exposed to a prime, and then exposed to a target adjective relating to African Americans/White Americans.
• Followed by this exposure to the adjective stimulus, the participants were required to judge if a combination of a word-nonword pairing was correct. (if both ‘words’ are actual words)

Question 122

For Evaluative priming, what was a trial? What happened in a trial?

Answer 122

• People were subliminally primed with a face.
• Face prime varied in SES and race (low/high, White/Black)
• After priming, participants had to categorise target words into positive or negative categories.
• Faster responses for primes preceding positive/negative words are thought to reflect the valence of opinion towards the prime.

Question 123

For Affect misattribution procedure, what was a trial? What happened in a trial?

Answer 123

• First, participants are shown the prime image for 100ms (either neutral, black, or white)
• This was followed by a blank screen for 100ms, and then a Chinese pictograph for 100ms.
• Following the pictograph, a patterned mask of black and white “noise” appeared.
• There was a 4-point rating scale at the bottom of the screen (-2 very unpleasant; -1 unpleasant; 1 pleasant; 2 very pleasant), where participants have to provide their evaluation of the Chinese pictograph.
• After making the evaluation, the next trial would begin.

Question 124

Situational Activation of Behaviours

Answer 124

Automatic goal pursuit

• Habit as association of goal with action
• Priming of the goal results in goal-dependent automaticity
• Eg. Goal is to drive, which triggers an automatic sequence of actions

Priming of cognition guides downstream behaviour

• Can result in either assimilation and contrast effect
• Ease of retrieval affects whether assimilation or contrast effect is caused

Question 125

Ease of retrieval moderates the effects of power: implications for the replicability of power recall effects
Lammers et al. (2017)

Answer 125

• Past investigations show that asking participants to recall a personal episode of power affects behaviour in a variety of ways.
• Recently, some researchers have questioned the replicability of such priming effects.
• This article adds to this conversation by investigating a moderator of power recall effects: ease of retrieval.
• 4 experiments find that the effects of the power recall manipulation are reduced or even reversed when the power episode is difficult to recall.
• This moderation is demonstrated across 3 effects associated with power: confidence, disobedience, and unethical behaviour.
• This moderation occurs regardless of whether ease of retrieval was measured or manipulated.
• These findings offer insight to the efficacy of the power recall manipulation and provide 1 explanation for failures to replicate (i.e., populations or situations differ in ease of retrieval).
• Overall, this work encourages a cumulative science by fine-tuning our understanding of when recalling experiences of power drive behaviour.

Question 126

How was power primed?

Lammers et al. (2017)

Answer 126

Exps 1-3:
High-power participants were instructed to recall a time “in which you had power over another individual or individuals.” Low power participants were instructed to recall a time “in which someone else had power over you or where you lacked power. Afterwards, participants had to describe the situation, what happened, and how they felt.

Exp 4:
Participants in the high ease of retrieval condition were asked to provide 2 experiences where they felt either high or low power. Participants in the low ease of retrieval condition were asked to provide 8 experiences where they felt either high or low power.

Question 127

What was the article’s prediction?

Lammers et al. (2017)

Answer 127

• The article predicts that the power recall manipulation is more likely to produce previously established effects when the recalled information comes to mind with little effort, but more likely to attenuate, or even reverse, prior effects when people experience difficulty in recalling.
• Generating a few experiences of power (high ease of retrieval) would increase confidence more than generating many experiences (low ease of retrieval)

Question 128

What rationale did the authors provide for their prediction of ease of retrieval moderating the effect of power manipulation?
Lammers et al. (2017)

Answer 128

• When the experience of power is retrieved easily, participants might, consciously or unconsciously, misattribute this ease to the experience being diagnostic about one’s power.
• If people need to spend considerable effort to retrieve an experience of power, this difficulty might reduce the impact of the manipulation on one’s sense of power, even if the content of their thoughts emphasises power.
• Organisations tend to adopt hierarchical structures that grant varying degrees of power and people experience social roles associated with more or less power.
• This means that for those who frequently experience powerful positions or who for other reasons find it easy to think of their personal past, recalling such experiences may be easy, but for others this might prove difficult.

Question 129

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1985)

Answer 129

• Looks at how attitude affects behaviour
  Behavioral
• Assume must have intention to engage in behaviour first, then will engage in it;
• focuses on intentional behaviour (not all behaviour are intentional)

3 factors:

1. specific attitude
2. subjective norm
3. perceived behavioural control

Question 130

specific attitude

Answer 130

Attitude has to match behaviour in its specificity (attitude towards lettuce should match with lettuce-eating
behaviour, not vegetables)

Question 131

subjective norm

Answer 131

About how our significant others view the behaviour, whether they approve or not (does not include societal norms, only about how our friends & family think)

Question 132

perceived behavioural control

Answer 132

• Do I think I have the ability to do this? (Resources, ability, opportunity etc.)
• do I think I can actually exert control over the behaviour?
• If high, then more likely to have the behavioural intention, which leads to behaviour

Question 133

Match of specificity

Answer 133

• Specific cognition and specific behavior
• General cognition and general behavior tendency
• if the behaviour that I’m trying to predict is very specific, then the cognition, that I need to measure should be as specific.
• Whereas, if I’m looking at general behaviour tendency, then the cognition that I’m measuring should also be general cognition.
• match of specificity would help us have better predictive ability, using explicit cognition to predict behaviour.
• If there is a mismatch, then it will be a lot harder to use this cognition to predict behaviour.

Question 134

Moderation of cognition–intention and cognition–behaviour relations: A meta-analysis of properties of variables from the theory of planned behaviour
Cooke & Sheeran (2004)

Answer 134

• Meta-analysis was used to quantify the moderating effects of 7 properties of cognitions—accessibility, temporal stability, direct experience, involvement, certainty, ambivalence and affective-cognitive consistency—on cognition–intention and cognition–behaviour relations.
• Findings showed that all of the properties, except involvement, moderated attitude–behaviour consistency. - Similarly, all relevant moderators improved the consistency between intentions and behaviour.
• Temporal stability moderated PBC–behaviour relations, certainty moderated subjective norm–intention relations, and ambivalence, certainty, and involvement all moderated attitude– intention relations.
• Overall, temporal stability appeared to be the strongest moderator of cognition–behaviour relations.

Question 135

In general, which moderator had the strongest effect on cognition-behavior consistency?
Cooke & Sheeran (2004)

Answer 135

Temporal stability is the moderator that had the strongest effect on cognition-behaviour consistency (r+ = 0.62)

Cognition-Behaviour:

• Overall, temporal stability moderated cognition–behaviour relations
• participants with more stable cognitions possessed greater cognition–behaviour consistency (r+=.62) than participants with less stable cognitions (r+=.27).
• Temporal stability was also an effective moderator of specific relationships:
• Participants with more stable attitudes possessed greater attitude–behaviour consistency (r+=.65) than participants with less stable attitudes (r+=−.01);
• participants with highly stable intentions showed stronger intention– behaviour consistency (r+=.67) than participants with less stable intentions (r+=.30),
• participants with more stable PBC demonstrated greater PBC–behaviour consistency “

Question 136

Comparing implicit and explicit measures

Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald (2002)

Answer 136

• Stereotype and SAT performance
• The stronger the explicit stereotype, the better the SAT performance
• Sex X Stereotype interaction: the link between explicit stereotype and SAT performance stays the same, regardless of participants’ gender.
• But implicit stereotypes were significant for Sex X Stereotype interaction
• Different predictive effect on performance for male and female participants
• Men: Implicit stereotypes positively related to SAT performance
• Women: Implicit stereotype was negatively correlated with SAT performance. So for women, the stronger the implicit stereotype, the worse their relative performance
• Stronger correlation between explicit attitude and performance compared to implicit attitude

Question 137

Which was a better predictor of SAT performance, implicit or explicit stereotype? Identify the results that would support your answer.
Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald (2002)

Answer 137

• Explicit stereotypes were better predictors of relative SAT performance.
• From Table 5, the explicit stereotypes had a significant correlation (r = 0.24) with SAT performance while implicit stereotypes did not have a significant correlation (0.14) with SAT performance.
• Furthermore, for men, implicit stereotypes were positively related to all 5 dependent variables—implicit math attitude, implicit math identity, explicit math attitude, explicit math identity, and SAT performance (average r=.50).
• However, for women, stronger implicit stereotypes corresponded with weaker math attitudes, identity, and performance.

Question 138

Which was a better predictor of SAT performance, implicit or explicit attitude? Identify the results that would support your answer.
Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald (2002)

Answer 138

• SAT performance was positively related to both explicit and implicit attitudes, but the correlation was stronger for explicit attitudes (r=0.49) than implicit attitudes (r=0.38)
• Implicit and explicit attitudes are not redundant measures of preference. Each carries its own predictive power

Question 139

Some factors that affect the predictive effect of implicit vs. explicit measures
Nosek, Hawkins & Frazier (2011)

Answer 139

1. motivation
   - motivation for self-presentation
   - motivation to control implicit response
2. opportunity
   - opportunity to interrupt the automatic response
3. ability
   - cognitive capacity
   - knowledge of how to control the influence
4. awareness
   - awareness of implicit influence

Question 140

motivation for self-presentation

Answer 140

• When there is a strong motivation for self-presentation, such as for topics like prejudice and stereotyping, implicit measures tend to predict people’s behaviour better
• because people would exert a lot of control over their explicit responses, thus there is a very strong social desirability element on their explicit responses
• And because of that, then the explicit responses may not predict their behavior that well.
• So when there’s a strong motivation for self presentation, we tend to see implicit measures predicting behavior better than explicit measures

Question 141

Motivation to control implicit response

Answer 141

eg. Control prejudice
- the implicit cognition is likely to predict behaviour when people who are not motivated to control their implicit response

Question 142

Opportunity to interrupt the automatic process

Answer 142

• how much opportunity there is for people to interrupt the automatic process
• if they’re cognitively busy, they cannot exert much control over the automatic process right they cannot interrupt the automatic process
• When people are working under time pressure, they cannot really interrupt the automatic process that much
• when people don’t have the opportunity to interrupt the automatic process, implicit cognition predicts behaviour better

Question 143

Cognitive capacity

Answer 143

When there’s low concept capacity to exert control, affects people’s behaviour

Question 144

Knowledge of how to control the influence

Answer 144

• Sometimes we don’t know how to control our prejudice
• If there’s no knowledge or low knowledge on how to control the influence of the implicit process, then this would have a stronger predictor effect on people’s behaviour

Question 145

Awareness of implicit content/influence

Answer 145

• People’s awareness of the content of their implicit cognition, or the awareness of the implicit cognition on their behaviour.
• Implicit content/cognition is supposed to be unconscious, but to some extent, people might have a certain awareness of what they are and usually that comes from their experience of their spontaneous response
• You can have an instinctive implicit association of something
• We might also have certain awareness of how the implicit content might be related to our behaviour.
• If they are not aware of the link between the implicit content and their responses, we see a stronger relationship between implicit cognition and behaviour.
• When there is high awareness, then people are more able to exert control, then we see a weaker effect of implicit cognition on behaviour.