Week 9: Women's representation

Question 1

What are formal, descriptive, substantive, and symbolic representation?

Answer 1

-Formal: electoral systems, political parties, quotas
-Descriptive: the number of women elected to office
-Substantive: deas and actions; what women do in office
-Symbolic: women MPs as role models

Question 2

Why do proportional representation (PR) systems tend to elect more women compared to majoritarian systems?

Answer 2

• PR systems have larger districts that elect multiple representatives, allowing parties to nominate a list of candidates, including both men and women.
• This avoids a “zero-sum choice” where only one candidate is chosen (as in majoritarian systems).
• Parties can “balance the ticket” by appealing to diverse voter groups, increasing women’s representation.

Question 3

How do majoritarian systems create barriers to women’s representation?

Answer 3

In majoritarian systems (e.g., first-past-the-post), only one candidate is elected per district, forcing parties to make a zero-sum choice.
Traditional biases lead parties to prioritise male candidates over women, reducing women’s chances of election.

Question 4

According to Andrich et al., how are man being associated in the media (what words are associated with men)?

Answer 4

men are associated with traits like “competence, leadership, and integrity”

Question 5

What are the “supply-side” explanations for women’s underrepresentation in politics?

Answer 5

• Gender Socialization: Women undervalue their qualifications (e.g., Wigfield et al., 1996).
• Political Ambition: Women see themselves as less qualified and are less encouraged to run (Fox and Lawless, 2011).
• Resource Constraints: Limited time, money, and civic skills.
• Networks: Fewer women in “feeder” careers like law or business.

Question 6

What are the “demand-side” explanations for women’s underrepresentation in politics?

Answer 6

• Electoral Systems: Proportional representation (PR) systems elect more women than majoritarian systems.
• Political Parties: Left-wing parties and women party leaders recruit more female candidates.
• Voter Biases: Gender stereotypes and cultural factors discourage voter support for women.

Question 7

What is the difference between descriptive representation and substantive representation?

Answer 7

• Descriptive Representation: When representatives share a similar identity with the group they represent → “who they are”
• Substantive Representation: When representatives act to advance the interests of the group. → “what they do

Question 8

what is gender quota and what does it do?

Answer 8

policy measures requiring a certain percentage of women in candidate list to improve and promote the representation of women in parliament

Question 9

What are gender quotas, and what types exist?

Answer 9

Party Quotas:
- Voluntary measures by parties (e.g., Labour’s all-women shortlists).
- Quota Laws: Mandates for all parties to nominate a specific percentage of women (e.g., Argentina, 1991).
- Political Reservations: Reserved legislative seats for women (e.g., Iraq).

Question 10

what reduces the likelihood of a party placing women at the bottom of a candidate list even if there’s a gender quota?

Answer 10

Placement mandates (zipper system) - require parties to position men and women alternately on candidate lists (e.g., zipper system).

Question 11

what is tokenism?

Answer 11

making a superficial or symbolic effort to include members of underrepresented groups to give the appearance of equality or diversity, without making meaningful changes to address systemic inequalities.

Question 12

what is contagion(influential) effect of implementing gender quota?

Answer 12

party quotas can lead to national quota adoption

Question 13

What are the effects of gender quotas on politics?

Answer 13

• Increased Representation: More women in legislatures and leadership (Tripp and Kang, 2008).
• Policy Focus: More attention to social justice and gender equality issues (Weeks, 2018).
• Candidate Quality: Quotas can improve candidate quality by replacing less-qualified male candidates (Besley et al., 2017).

Question 14

What are Kimberlé Crenshaw’s (1989) contributions to intersectionality?

Answer 14

• Coined the term “intersectionality” to describe how racism and sexism interact uniquely for Black women.
• Expanded to explore overlapping oppressions globally (e.g., class, ethnicity, sexual orientation).
• Highlights compounded barriers faced by women with intersecting identities.

Question 15

What role does the media play in reinforcing gender stereotypes in politics?

Answer 15

Focuses on women’s personal lives, appearance, and family roles rather than qualifications.
Associates men with traits like “competence” and “leadership” (Andrich et al., 2023).

Question 16

How does symbolic representation affect citizens’ perceptions of women in politics?

Answer 16

• Increases political engagement and knowledge among men and women.
• Enhances satisfaction with democracy and legitimacy of institutions.
• Improves attitudes toward women’s capacity to govern.

Question 17

What is the “critical mass” in gender quotas, and what threshold is commonly targeted?

Answer 17

The critical mass refers to the percentage of women needed in political positions to influence decision-making effectively.

Common threshold: 30% (suggested by the UN), with some countries aiming for parity (50%).

Question 18

What are the challenges of implementing quotas?

Answer 18

• Placement Mandates: Without placement mandates (e.g., zipper systems), women may be placed at the bottom of lists.
• Non-PR Systems: Quotas are harder to implement in majoritarian systems.
• Tokenism: Reserved seats may stigmatize women as being elected solely due to quotas.

Question 19

is a substantive or descriptive representation of women more effective and why?

Answer 19

descriptive is more effective because it leads to a symbolic representation of women -> better connection and trust with the voters