Week 9 - motivation Flashcards
Define motivation
The driving force behind behaviour
What are the aspects that come with motivation
Determines aims and goals
Strength of motivation determines the likelihood of achieving goals
Influenced by internal and external factors
-experience
-beliefs
-physiological states
What’re the drives in the drive reduction theory (motivation)
Drive: state of arousal (caused by an unmet need) that drives behaviour
Primary drives: innate needs such as food, water, sex.
-we are more focussed on things moss needed for survival (thirst>food)
Secondary drives: learned through association with primary drives
Outline the drive reduction theory (motivation)
Unmet needs -> unpleasant internal state (drive)
Behaviours reduce unpleasant state -> drive reduction
Drive reduction is rewarding and repeated in future
We try to maintain homeostasis (balance)
What’re the limitations of the drive reduction theory in motivation?
External stimuli can activate drives (eg not hungry until smell food)
Can be motivated to behave in ways that do not reduce drives (eg seeking out new experiences, boredom, avoidance etc)
We often engage in behaviours when drives are satisfied
What is the arousal theory in relation to motivation?
We are motivated to maintain or restore an optimum level of arousal
Yerkes- Dodson Law:
Inverted U shape relationship between arousal and performance (moderate arousal equals high performance)
Stimulus hunger: can occur when under- aroused (fidgeting, fantasising, socialising etc)
Approach and avoidance theory in relation to motivation
Approach - predisposition towards certain stimuli (eg foods)
Avoidance - predisposition away from certain stimuli (eg menacing animals)
These can often be in conflict
Fundamental is you’ll either move towards something, or away
Incentive theories of motivation
We are motivated by positive goals (desired outcomes)
Intrinsic motivation: behaviour driven by internal reward (eg enjoyment gained from act itself)
Extrinsic motivation: behaviours driven by external reward/benefit
-inventive: a reward (or removal of unpleasant stimuli)
What is the expectancy value theory, as a sub category of incentive theories? (Motivation)
Expectancy value theory: motivation influenced by both value placed on goal and perceived ability to attain it
- Value: do I want this task? Is this worth it?
- Expectancy: can I do this? Am I capable?
Humanistic perspective on motivation
Humanists argue desire for personal growth motivates behaviour.
Maslow hierarchy of needs:
-lower level needs must be fulfilled before progressing to more complex needs.
Motivation and reward pathways
Reward pathways: system of dopamine producing neurons extending from midbrain to frontal and limbic areas, including nucleus accumbens.
Dopamine is released when a stimulus is rewarding - this acts as a learning signal to repeat behaviours.
Hunger and eating
Motivation to eat - complex interaction between physiological and psychological factors
We have a biological need to eat in order to obtain energy and nutrients
- metabolism: transformation of food into energy (glucose).
Hunger vs. satiety (not wanting to eat anymore)
What motivates us to eat? (Set point theory)
Set point theories of eating - individuals have a genetically programmed set point, or optimum level of body fat and metabolism that is maintained by homeostatic mechanisms
Limitations:
- conflicts with evolutionary theories
- does not explain obesity/eating disorders
- ignored the role of learning and psychosocial factors
What motivates us to eat? (Positive incentive perspective)
Positive incentive perspective: the primary reason for eating is the expected pleasure of eating
This expectation is due to physiological and evolutionary mechanisms, learnt responses and social influences.
Positive incentive value: anticipated pleasure of performing a particular behaviour.
Hunger and eating - physiological processes
Glucostatic theory: hunger/satiety is signalled when blood glucose drops/increases
Insulin: released when we eat (allows glucose to enter cells), provides satiety signals to hypothalamus
Hormones from stomach/intestines: signal hunger (ghrelin) or satiety (cholecystokinin) to hypothalamus
Nutrient/stretch receptors: in stomach/intestines send messages to hypothalamus to indicate fullness
Leptin: hormone sends signals about fat stores
Physiological processes of hunger and eating : brain mechanisms
Damage to lateral hypothalamus -> decreases hunger (no ‘on’ switch)
Damage to ventromedjal hypothalamus -> increases hunger (no ‘satiety’ switch)
What motivates us to eat (psychosocial factors)
Taste/palatability of food - innate preference for sweet foods, preference for variety.
Classical conditioning- conditioned to eat at certain times, response to stimuli
Presence of others - likely to eat more in the presence of others
Anxiety reduction - ‘comfort eating’
Weight gain and obesity
More than 17 million Australians are overweight/obese.
If weight gain continues at current levels, by 2020, 80% of all Australian adults and 1/3 of children will be overweight or obese
Theories of weight gain and obesity
Evolutionary pressures: the most likely to survive
- ate high calorie foods
- ate as much as possible when possible
- able to store and use fat effectively
Cultural pressures
- position distortion
- beliefs around eating
Physiological and genetic pressures in obesity and weight gain
Leptin deficiency: difficulty recognising when full and store fat more effectively
- melanocortin-4 receptor gene mutation - inability to feel full
- polygenic effects
- obesity may damage stretch receptors in stomach
Concordance rates for obesity
- monozygotic twins: .7-.9
- dizygotic: .35-.45
- monozygotic twins reared apart: .4-.7
Neuropsychological pressure associated in weight gain and obesity
Sensitivity to reward - reward pathways, increased motivation to derive pleasure from eating
Reward deficiency syndrome - hypoactivity in the reward pathways
Excessive eating occurs to increase reward responses
Eating disorders
Bulima nervosa:
- prevalence in Australia 1-3%
- cycle of binging/purging
Binge eating disorder:
-prevelance in Australia ~3%
Recurrent binging without purging
Anorexia nervosa:
- prevelance in Australia 0.5%
- mortality rate ~5-10%
Sexual motivation - biological determinants
Testosterone - higher levels associated with increased sex drive
Serotonin - higher levels associated with decreased sex drive
Oxytocin - higher during affectionate interaction
Genetics - DRD4 protein (dopamine transporter)
Sexual behaviour and physiology
Masters and Johnson lab research
4 phase sexual response cycle
Arousal cycle same for males and females
Basic biological drive, but sexual behaviours are strongly influenced by psychosocial factors
Excitement-> plateau -> orgasm -> resolution
Factors that impact on sexual behaviour
Length of time with partner
Age - 79% of men and 69% of women aged 40-80 were sexually actively in past year (Could be because men die earlier)
Cultural norms influence sexual - related activities and importance of chastity varies.
what social factors influence Interpersonal attraction?
- proximity and nearness
- similarity
- reciprocity
- level of physical attraction
Sex differences in attraction
Males place more emphasis on looks and younger mates. Women on financial resources and older mates
Both place a premium on intelligence, dependability and kindness
Evolutionary (nature) vs. social role models (nurture).
What is attractive?
Cross culturally, mean and women tend to agree on who is and is not attractive
Men like hip to waist ratios around 0.7, females like higher
There are some cultural preferences for things like body size
Concepts of average in attractiveness
The more “average” a face is, the more highly rated it is as attractive
Holds up across cultures
More symmetrical, but nah also indicate a general preference for a more familiar stimuli
Love
Theorists don’t agree on the types of love
Hatfield and Rapsons passionate and companionate love
Sterbergs triangular theory of love and three major elements:
Intimacy, commitment and passion
All three equal consummate love
Hate
Sternberg (2004) sees hate as consisting of:
- negation of intimacy
- passion
- commitment
Combinations lead to different types of hatred
-“burning hatred” is high on all three
Psychosocial motives - agency
Achievement motivation: the need to be successful and avoid failure
High achievers:
- select tasks that are reasonably difficult, but attainable
- tend to be more persistent and take more pride in achieving
- tend to attribute past success to themselves and past failure to external factors
High achieving not equal to greater ability. Motivation is also very important.
what is Achievement motivation comprised of?
Performance goals - desire to attain a certain level and focussed on outcome
- approach goals: motivation is desire to achieve goal
- avoidance goals: motivation is fear of failure
Mastery goals - desire to improve ability and skills, more intrinsic value
Addiction and motivation
Physical dependence theories of addiction
- physical dependence - cycle of taking drug, trying to stop, restarting due to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms
- detoxification clinics treatments based on this premise
Problems with this approach:
Some drugs (eg cocaine) have few withdrawal symptoms
Many people with an addiction will have an irregular drug taking routine.
Addiction and motivation (incentive theories)
Positive incentive theories of addiction:
-anticipation and craving of the positive effects associated with taking the substance
Incentive sensitisation theory:
-the more a drug is used, the greater the positive incentive value becomes.
-explains why addicted people crave drugs even when they have developed a tolerance to the drug
The neuroscience of addiction
Reward pathways:
-for drugs of dependence, reward pathways are initially activated (dopamine released) during drug use, and later, by even the expectation of receiving the drug (eg drug cues)
Motivation and reward pathways
System of dopamine producing neurons extending from midbrain to frontal and limbic areas, including nucleus’s accumbens.
Dopamine is released when a stimulus is rewarding - this acts as a learning signal to repeat behaviours
