Week 7 Learning Objectives

Question 1

Describe the location and anatomy of the lungs

Answer 1

The apex of lungs is located superior and extends slightly above the clavicles and the concave base of the lung’s rests on the diaphragm. The right lung has three lobes, whereas the left lung has two lobes and is 10% smaller.

Question 2

Identify SIX functions of the Respiratory System

Answer 2

Gas exchange, acid base balance, phonation, pulmonary defenses and metabolism and the handling of bioactive material

Question 3

Identify the structures that make up the Upper Respiratory Tract

Answer 3

Nose, pharynx, larynx, nasal cavity, mouth

Question 4

Identify the THREE parts of the Pharynx AND state the function for each

Answer 4

Nasopharynx- a passage only for air, prevents food from entering the nasal cavity
Oropharynx- a passage for food and air, contains the tonsils
Laryngopharynx- a passage for food and air, posterior to the oesophagus

Question 5

Identify at least FOUR functions of the larynx

Answer 5

Connects the laryngopharynx to the trachea Passage for air
The vocal folds produce sound
Initiates cough reflex

Question 6

Describe the protective role of the cilia and identify lifestyle factor that destroys cilia

Answer 6

Cilia is a liquid layer of mucous which covers the airways, as a form of protection a lifestyle factor which destroys cilia is smoking.

Question 7

Discuss the effects of homeostatic imbalance in the Upper Respiratory Tract: Viral & Bacterial infections

Answer 7

Effects of homeostatic imbalance include infection such as laryngitis, which creates swelling in the vocal cords, creating hoarse sounds or just a whisper.

Question 8

Describe sinuses

Answer 8

Sinuses are cavities in cranial and facial bones of the skull lined by respiratory mucosa

Question 9

Describe the structure and functions of the nasal cavity

Answer 9

Lined by mucous membrane, produces copious amounts of mucus each day; Contains lysozyme to destroy bacteria, The sticky mucous traps dust bacteria & other debris, High water content of mucous humidifies incoming air.

Question 10

Identify the structures that make up the Lower Respiratory Tract

Answer 10

Trachea, lungs- bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli.
The trachea branches into bronchi and then bronchioles. R lung has 3 lobes, L lung has 2 lobes. The diaphragm helps the lungs contract during breathing to increase or decrease airflow.

Question 11

Identify the difference between the structure AND function of the Conducting Zone and the Respiratory Zone

Answer 11

The conducting zone, which includes everything from the nose to the smallest bronchioles, moves air into and out of the lungs. The respiratory zone includes the respiratory bronchioles and alveoli and moves the respiratory gases, that is oxygen and carbon dioxide, in and out of the blood.

Question 12

State the effects of Sympathetic AND Parasympathetic stimulation on the bronchioles

Answer 12

The body needs to constrict the bronchioles when there is more respiration in the sympathetic stimulation.

Question 13

Describe the structure AND function of the alveoli, Discuss blood supply to the lungs

Answer 13

Alveoli are an important part of the respiratory system whose function it is to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules to and from the bloodstream.

Question 14

Describe the TWO pleural membranes AND their function

Answer 14

The visceral pleura is the thin, slippery membrane that covers the surface of the lungs and dips into the areas separating the different lobes of the lungs (called the hilum). The parietal pleura is the outer membrane that lines the inner chest wall and diaphragm (the muscle separating the chest and abdominal cavities).

Question 15

Describe the function of surfactant in relation to surface tension

Answer 15

The main function of surfactant is to lower the surface tension at the air/liquid interface within the alveoli of the lung.

Question 16

Identify the effects of Asthma in the respiratory tract

Answer 16

If you have asthma, the inside walls of the airways in your lungs can become inflamed and swollen. In addition, membranes in your airway linings may secrete excess mucus.

Question 17

Define the process of ventilation in the lungs

Answer 17

Ventilation- Ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air through the conducting passages between the atmosphere and the lungs. The air moves through the passages because of pressure gradients that are produced by contraction of the diaphragm and thoracic muscles.

Question 18

Define External Respiration AND Internal Respiration

Answer 18

External respiration, also known as breathing, involves both bringing air into the lungs (inhalation) and releasing air to the atmosphere (exhalation). During internal respiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the cells and blood vessels.

Question 19

Define the process of diffusion in the lungs

Answer 19

Diffusion- Lung diffusion is your ability to pass oxygen into the blood from the air sacs of the lungs, and pass carbon dioxide (CO2) back into the lungs from the blood.

Question 20

Define the process of perfusion in the lungs

Answer 20

Perfusion- Perfusion (Q) refers to the flow of blood to alveolar capillaries. Individual alveoli have variable degrees of ventilation and perfusion in different regions of the lungs.

Question 21

Define External Respiration AND Internal Respiration

Answer 21

External respiration, also known as breathing, involves both bringing air into the lungs (inhalation) and releasing air to the atmosphere (exhalation). During internal respiration, oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the cells and blood vessels.

Question 22

Describe FOUR factors which promote External Respiration

Answer 22

The components of external respiration include alveolar surface area, ventilation and perfusion matching, and partial pressure gradients. Partial pressure gradients allow gasses to flow from areas of high pressure to areas of lower pressure.

Question 23

Define Partial Pressure

Answer 23

Partial pressure is force exerted by each gas in a mixture of gases.

Question 24

State where is PO2 is highest and the effect on O2 binding with haemoglobin

Answer 24

Pulmonary veins, Haemoglobin changes shape based on how many oxygen molecules are bound to it.

Question 25

State where PCO2 is highest and the effect on CO2 diffusion

Answer 25

Highest PO2 in air, lowest in cells. Highest PCO2 in cells, lowest in air. Diffusion is gas movement between the lungs and tissues occurs via simple diffusion

Question 26

Define Haemoglobin and Oxyhaemoglobin

Answer 26

Haemoglobin is a protein molecule that binds to oxygen. Haemoglobin forms an unstable, reversible bond with oxygen. In its oxygen-loaded form, it is called oxyhaemoglobin and is bright red.

Question 27

State the percentage of oxygen transported by Hb

Answer 27

Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself. Most oxygen—98.5 percent—is bound to a protein called haemoglobin and carried to the tissues.

Question 28

Identify clinical indicators (tests) of oxygenation which we may observe/measure

Answer 28

Pulse oximetry test is a test which measures the amount of oxygen in the blood through a small clamp which goes on the finger or arterial blood gas sampling, usually done in the emergency department or ICU of the hospital.

Question 29

Discuss release of 02 at resting and active tissues – include ATP production

Answer 29

Haemoglobin combines with oxygen in the lungs to for oxyhaemoglobin and for the oxygen to be ‘dropped off’ through diffusion.

Question 30

Identify the ways carbon dioxide is transported in blood

Answer 30

Approximately 75% of carbon dioxide is transport in the red blood cell and 25% in the plasma.

Question 31

State the most powerful respiratory stimulant

Answer 31

Carbon dioxide is one of the most powerful stimulants of breathing.

Question 32

Define Hypoxia

Answer 32

Hypoxia is a condition where not enough oxygen makes it to the cells and tissues in the body.

Question 33

Define Hypoxaemia

Answer 33

An abnormally low concentration of oxygen in the blood.

Question 34

Define Hypercapnia

Answer 34

Hypercapnia is a build-up of carbon dioxide in your bloodstream

Question 35

Discuss changes in rate and depth of inspiration

Answer 35

CO2 levels are the main influence; oxygen levels only affect breathing with dangerously low. If CO2 levels increase, the respiratory centre (medulla and pons) is stimulated to increase the rate and depth of breathing.

Question 36

State the nerves and muscles involved and describe the effects on thoracic volume.

Answer 36

The phrenic nerves, vagus nerves, and posterior thoracic nerves are the major nerves involved in respiration.

Question 37

Discuss chemical stimuli of H+, C02 and 02, including; Identify where the receptors for each are located

Answer 37

Central chemoreceptors are located 0.2 mm below the ventrolateral surface of the medulla in the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) inside the blood-brain barrier (BBB).

Question 38

Describe the negative feedback response to high C02

Answer 38

The chemical weathering works as a negative feedback that moderates long-term climate change.

Question 39

Define Inflation Reflex

Answer 39

The reflex response is to inhibit inspiration. This reflex is too weak to control the depth of the tidal volume during normal breathing. This prevents over inflation of the lungs.

Question 40

Describe conscious control of breathing, and other influences on respiration

Answer 40

In mammals, ventilation is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and gas exchange in the lungs is the primary control for respiratory rate. Humans are also able to voluntarily override automatic respiration, allowing breath holding and prolonged vocalizations.

Question 41

Identify clinical indicators of oxygenation which we may observe/measure

Answer 41

Medical emergencies requiring high concentrations of oxygen in all cases: Shock. Sepsis. Major trauma. Cardiac arrest and during resuscitation. Anaphylaxis. Medical emergencies which may or may not require oxygen administration. Asthma. Bronchitis. Acute heart failure or heart failure exacerbations. Pulmonary embolism.

Question 42

Discuss differences and changes in respiratory function across the lifespan

Answer 42

Respiratory function decreases as we age, Airways and tissues of the respiratory system become less elastic & more rigid, e.g. The thorax becomes more rigid, Elasticity of the lungs decreases, Vital capacity declines, Decrease in blood oxygen level, Older person has reduced ability to perform vigorous exercises like running, Sleep apnoea is more common.

Question 43

State the muscles involved with increasing the thoracic cavity volume

Answer 43

Contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the ribs upward and outward, causing the rib cage to expand, which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity.

Question 44

Describe the role of the pleural membranes

Answer 44

The function of the pleura is to allow optimal expansion and contraction of the lungs during breathing. The pleural fluid acts as a lubricant, allowing the parietal and visceral pleura to glide over each other friction free.

Question 45

Describe Normal Inspiration and Normal Expiration

Answer 45

The normal inspiration/expiration (I/E) ratio to start is 1:2. This is reduced to 1:4 or 1:5 in the presence of obstructive airway disease to avoid air-trapping (breath stacking) and auto-PEEP or intrinsic PEEP.