week 6 & 7 questions Flashcards
What was Leo III’s greatest monument and on which textual traditions did it draw? What were the advantages and disadvantages of the theme system during Leo III’s early reign?
His greatest achievement was the iconoclast movement, which involved the rejection and destruction of icons in the Empire
* Rooted in both Biblical and imperial traditions and drew on the Old Testament (prohibition of idols in Exodus)
**Advantages of the theme system: **
* More localized military control
* Made the Empire more adaptable to external threats
* Enhancing the efficiency of administration and defence
* Helped solidify the emperor’s control over military forces
**Disadvantages: **
* Led to the fragmentation of loyalty
* Military leaders (strategoi) gaining immense power
* Could undermine centralized imperial authority and lead to regionalism and rebellion
* Decentralization made it harder to maintain unity and stability across the empire
What was an icon and what were 2-3 essential cultural, intellectual aspects explaining its importance in Byzantine society?
- An icon was a religious image (typically a painting or mosaic) depicting sacred figures like Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, or various saints
- Icons were seen as a way to bridge the divine and the mortal and allowed the faithful to connect to the sacred through a physical manifestation
- They were connected to Byzantine religious and artistic traditions and reinforced the Empire’s Christian identity and its connection to divine authority, especially in the context of imperial power
What specifically is iconoclasm? Was it more important under Leo III or his son Konstantinos V?
- Iconoclasm is the destruction of religious imagery and is rooted in the belief that the veneration of icons was sacrilegious, idolatrous and went against the Christian doctrine
- Iconoclasm was more important under Leo III, who initiated the movement by banning icons in 726
- Konstantinos V furthered this movement, but its creation and attribution is mostly to Leo III as he set the ideological and political stage for the conflict over icons
What are some of the theories trying to explain iconoclasm? Which one does Anthony Kadellis favor?
Religious: driven by theological concerns over idolatry and the interpretation of the Second Commandment
Political: a means for the emperor to assert authority over the church and religious leaders
Social: a response to social tensions between different groups within the empire - like the military and the clergy
AK favours the political theory as he believes iconoclasm was more about consolidating imperial power and curbing the church’s influence
What are 3 important actions that strengthen Romania during Konstantinos V’s reign?
Military reforms: Konstantinos V strengthened the army, reorganizing it to be more effective in defending the empire
Expansion of the themes system: he reinforced the theme system, increasing local military and administrative control, which enhanced regional defence and imperial stability
Iconoclasm: he continued his father’s iconoclastic policies, reducing the power of the church and asserting imperial control over religious matters, which consolidated the emperor’s authority
Which territory did Konstantinos V abandon and what consequences did this have?
- He abandoned the Balkans to the Slavs
- This led to a loss of imperial control over large parts of the region
- This resulted in the spread of Slavic settlements
- Weakened Byzantine presence in the western provinces
How does Irene try to end the icon controversy?
She convened the Second Council of Nicea in 787, which affirmed the legitimacy of icons in the Christian religion and reversed the policies that preceded her
Give three examples showing how Irene was breaking away from the dynasty and recasting herself as an exceptional figure?
- She became empress regent, ruling the empire on her own after the exile of her son, Constantine VI
- She restored the veneration of icons and aligned herself with the church, presenting herself as a protector of orthodoxy
- She sought to present herself as a motherly and divine figure, emphasizing her role as a benefactor and protector of the empire
Which are the two “cultural wars” that happen at the end of the 8th and beginning of the 9th c.?
Iconoclasm - the theological and political conflict over the veneration of icons
Byzantine Church vs. the Papacy - growing tension between the Byzantine church and the papacy regarding papal independence and the role of the church in imperial authority
* Contributed to the East-West Schism
How do relations between Byzantines and Bulgars develop during the first quarter of the 9th c.?
Marked by conflict and diplomacy
* Initially, the Bulgars, under Krum, were hostile and launched raids against the Byzantines
By the early 9th century, there was a shift towards diplomacy after Bulgaria’s conversion to Christianity in 864, which led to a better alignment with the Byzantines in cultural and religious matters
During Leo V’s reign the image-quarrel starts again; But AK says that “Byzantine iconoclasm” was invented; How was this possible?
- He says it was reinvented during Leo V’s reign because it was no longer a theological issue but a political tool
- Leo V used iconoclasm to assert imperial control over the church, framing it as a defence of the true Christian doctrine against heresy
- It was now presented as not only a rejection of idolatry but also as a central part of imperial ideology and authority
Who was Photios?
An important figure in the development of Byzantine Christianity
A Byzantine scholar, theologian, and patriarch of Constantinople
Photian schism
* a conflict with the papacy
* Defended the empire’s independence from papal authority
What is the relationship between the Papacy and Byzantium during the mid-9th .c?
Not good, Bad.
Significant rupture in relations between them, with the Byzantines asserting their religious and political autonomy from the papacy
The Photian Schism (863-867)
Filioque controversy
Patriarch Photios of Constantinople vs. Pope Nicholas I
* Clashed over issues of church authority
What is the importance of the brothers Constantine (aka Cyril) and Methodius?
- Crucial in the Christianization of the Slavs
- They created the Glagolitic alphabet to translate the Bible and other liturgical texts into Slavic languages, which made Christianity more accessible
- Helped strengthen Byzantine influence in the Balkans
- Played a key role in the integration of the Slavs into the Christian world
According to AK was Romania an Empire the way we understand it, and why?
- It had a centralized, organized structure under a single ruler who wielded supreme political and religious authority
- Encompassed diverse peoples and territories
- It had a system of governance that integrated military, administrative, and cultural institutions
- A multi-ethnic empire
Give two examples of the revival of learning but also explain how the Byzantines became the objects of cultural appropriation from two sides.
The 9th-century Renaissance
* The establishment of educational reforms under Emperor Micheal III and Patriarch Photios
* This led to the revival of classical studies and the promotion of intellectual activity
The translation movement
* The translation of Greek theological, philosophical, and scientific works into Slavic and Arabic
* Expanded Byzantine cultural influence
Cultural appropriation happened in the Latin West
* They appropriated Byzantine religious and philosophical ideas, including the use of icons and Christian theological concepts
* Influenced the development of Western Christianity
Cultural appropriation happened in the east
* Islamic scholars translated and preserved Byzantine texts, particularly in fields like philosophy and medicine, and integrated them into Islamic scholarship
What is a characteristic of the foreign northern tribes according to Constantine?
- The northern tribes - particularly the Slavs - were warlike and lived in scattered communities, which made them difficult to control
- They were semi-nomadic, and their lifestyle focused on herding and raiding, which made them a persistent threat to the Byzantines
What should a Roman emperor always refuse to give to a foreign group?
They should always refuse to give land to a foreign group
* This prevents foreigners from gaining power within the Empire and potentially turning against Roman interests
Can the Roman imperial family enter in matrimonial alliance with non-Romans?
Constantine VII said that the Roman Imperial family should never marry non-Romans
* Such alliances could undermine Roman sovereignty and the legitimacy of imperial lineage
* The emperor’s family should remain pure and strengthen its position by marrying within Christian and Roman circles
What was special about Romanus’ case?
- He married outside of traditional circles by marrying an Armenian noblewoman
- It allowed him to secure his power but was considered an unusual deviation from the norms that Constantine VII put in place
How is Lituprand treated by the emperor Nicephore Phokas?
Liutprand
- He was met with humiliation and disrespect
- Despite being there on a diplomatic mission, he was insulted personally and as a representative of the King of Italy
- Liutprand was not given a proper audience or the expected honour due to an ambassador
- He was left waiting a long time with no response
- The emperor’s demeanour towards him was dismissive and lacked courtesy
How does Liutprand describe the emperor?
Liutprand
- He describes him very negatively, using words like ‘ugly’ and ‘unfit’ for ruling
- He criticizes the emperor’s appearance and character
- He suggests that the emperor was unattractive and lacked the dignified presence that was expected of an emperor
- He also portrays Phokas as being boorish and arrogant and that he had no refinement or grace
What do we know about Basil’s advisor during his early years?
Michel Psellos
- John, the Orphanotrophos, advised him
- John is described as pragmatic and capable but also as manipulative and ambitious
- John had lots of influence over Basil, as he was quite young when he took up the throne
- John’s authority eventually deteriorated as Basil matured and took full control of the Empire
- John’s ambitions and political manipulation led him to be unpopular and removed from power
Following Psellos’ description of the final battle between the rebels and Basil, what “supernatural” help did Romans have recourse to during wars?
Michel Psellos
- During the Battle against Vardas Skleros, the Romans sought divine assistance
- In the final battle, it is said that holy relics, particularly the head of St. John the Baptist, were carried into battle as a sign of divine intervention
- In many Byzantine military campaigns, religious symbols and relics were thought to secure divine favour during battle
Who helps the Roman emperor against the rebels?
Michel Psellos
- Nikephoras Phokas the Elder played a pivotal role in suppressing the rebellion of the Phokas family
- Basil was assisted by his generals and military commanders, as well as his beaurocratic network
How does Psellos explain the fact that though Basil II was harsh and not keen on culture, culture thrived during his reign?
Michel Psellos
- Basil had a reputation for being a harsh and focused military leader
- Even though he was generally disinterested in culture, Basil’s reign was a period of relative stability and prosperity, which allowed culture to thrive
- Basil’s military successes and strong governance helped the Empire experience political and economic stability, which provided a good environment for arts, education, and intellectual activities to flourish
- The church and monasteries were still important patrons of cultures, promoting library and theological works
What were the two characteristic elements of the Roman system of imperial succession and what did other peoples think of it?
- Dynastic succession: The throne was passed down within a family, typically from father to son
- The emperor’s election by the army and/or elites: Sometimes, the army or key political factions influenced the choice of the emperor, particularly during times of crisis
- People in the Eastern Mediterranean found this system unpredictable
- They were used to the more traditional monarchies
What is the military situation in the Central Mediterranean during Basileios’ and Leon’s reigns? (throughout the chapter)
- The situation was characterized by continuous conflict, especially with the Saracen forces in the west and the Bulgarians in the North
- The Romans managed to hold onto some territory in Italy, but Muslims challenged their control of the region
- The Byzantine navy was often involved in skirmishes with Arab pirates
AK uses the example of the Italian Jews to show that the Empire was being ambivalent about being “imperial”. Give an example of how “minorities” (an anachronistic term) could benefit and another of how they could be vulnerable from this situation?
Benefit:
* Minorities like Italian Jews could benefit from the Byzantine system’s flexibility
* Jews and other non-Christians could achieve high social and administrative positions and engage in economic activities with little interference from the state
Vulnerable:
* The same groups were vulnerable to changes in imperial policies or shifts in political or religious power
* Jews and other minorities were sometimes targeted for their ethnic or religious differences, facing periods of persecution or forced conversion
Leon VI “the Wise” goes into a legislative and editorial frenzy. What are the two hypotheses about why this is?
**His desire to leave a lasting legacy **
* He sought to strengthen the legal framework of the empire and provide a clear, codified set of laws that could be followed for future generations
* This could be a way to solidify his reputation as a wise and just emperor
**Political insecurity **
* He may have been trying to compensate for his personal sense of failure and insecurity, especially after many failed marriages and issues with succession
* His focus on law might have been a way to reinforce his authority and attempt to impose order
Give three examples of how Romans regulated trade during Leon’s time? (Yes, it does include tariffs)
Tariffs: The Byzantines implemented tariffs on goods passing through the Empire’s trade routes, especially on luxury items like silk, spices, and precious metals
Monopolies: The state granted monopolies to certain guilds or state-run agencies, particularly in key industries such as silk production and grain distribution, to ensure control over essential commodities
Regulated trading zones: Byzantium established official markets and trading zones to control the flow of goods and ensure fair pricing, especially in Constantinople and other major urban areas
Who were some of the new people who showed up during the early years of the dynasty and became either foes or allies? (throughout the chapter)
Bulgarians: Under Symeon I, the Bulgarians were a major threat to Byzantine control in the Balkans
Saracens: The Muslims continued to be a threat, especially in the Mediterranean
Rus’: The Kievan Rus began to emerge as a new power in the north
* Initially, they were enemies, but over time, they transitioned into allies through strategic alliances, especially with the conversion of Prince Vladimir
How did his “legal frenzy” caused Leon problems in his “private” life?
- His obsession with legal reforms led to problems, specifically marital ones
- His reforms on monogamy and divorce led to public and personal difficulties
- Leon’s fourth marriage was considered unlawful by the church, caused a scandal, and led to tensions with both religious authorities and his own court
- His attempts to regulate private matters (like divorce and marriage) caused problems with his personal relationships and made him appear out of touch with his subjects’ lives
Which are the three challenges to young Constantine VII’s ascension to the throne? and how do they end?
- Power struggles within the palace: Constantine faced opposition from powerful military factions and court officials
- Rival claimants to the throne: Romanos I Lekapenos, a key figure in the military, initially took control as regent, sidelining Constantine
- Foreign pressures: The empire was facing threats from both the Bulgarians and the Saracens
These challenges ended with Romanos I being sidelined and Constantine VII taking control after his death, despite ongoing struggles with his own authority
As we’ve seen in the previous chapter as well, the Bulgarians, especially under Symeon, tent to be a constant threat for the Romans. How did they often try to deal with them?
- The Romans typically tried to deal with the Bulgarians through diplomacy and military force
- Diplomatic negotiations were often attempted but were rarely successful
- The Romans frequently engaged in border skirmishes and larger military confrontations as Symeon’s ambitions to become emperor of the Balkans were a persistent threat to the Empire
Which were the competitive advantages Romans used to remain (moderately) successful in battle on land and which on sea?
Land:
* The Romans used well-organized and disciplined armies, relying on heavily armoured infantry and the use of cavalry
* They also had a highly strategic military hierarchy and logistics system
**Sea: **
* The Romans relied on their superior naval tactics and the use of Greek fire
Initiating a tradition (tour day) showing that scholars don’t do good rules Konstantinos VII is famous especially for which scholarly achievements?
**De administrando imperio **
* A manual for future rulers
**De ceremoniis **
* This described the imperial court`s ceremonial practices
These writings are very important for historians, but Constanine’s focus on intellectual matters over military and political ones made him seem unfit to rule
Indicate a couple of examples of Roman “soft diplomacy”.
**Marriage alliances: **
* The Romans often used marriage as a diplomatic tool to forge alliances with foreign rulers
**Cultural exchanges: **
* The Byzantine court often engaged in cultural exchanges with neighbouring regions, including sending scholars and gifts to foreign powers to secure peace or improve relations
Missionary attempts
- especially true with the Bulgars
- Cyril
The formalization of the “military lands” policy aimed at resolving which two issues in the Empire?
- The decline of the Byzantine army due to a shortage of military personnel and resources
- The weakening of the central authority, as local commanders and military officers gained significant power through land grants
Which conflicting visions of Nikephoros Phokas do we have?
Heroic military leader: He was admired for his military victories, especially in Eastern campaigns against the Arabs
Harsh and oppressive ruler: He was criticized for his tyrannical rule, including his treatment of nobles and officials, which led to his eventual assassination
What is the Mount Athos?
- A mountain and peninsula in northern Greece that became an important centre of Christian Orthodox monasticism
- It is known for its monastic communities, where monks live in isolation from the rest of the world
How do the Rus turn from foe to friend between Tzimiskes and Basil II rules?
- Under Basil II’s rule, the Romans alliances with the Rus through diplomatic marriages, including the marriage of Vladimir of Kiev to a Byzantine princess
- This shift helped the Romans secure their northern borders
For the first time in more than 3 centuries, the Romans take full control of the Balkan peninsula under Basil II. How is this possible?
- This was made possible because of Basil II’s military prowess and his effective campaigns against the Bulgarians, particularly his defeat of Tsar Samuel
- Basil’s ability to organize the military, maintain discipline, and crush resistance allowed the Empire to regain control of the Balkans
