Week 5-Experimental Designs and Observation Methods

Question 1

Define Between-Subjects Design

Answer 1

■Groups are made up of different people
■Measures difference in performance between subjects (groups).

Question 2

Give 2 disadvantages to Between-Subjects Design

Answer 2

1.Large no. of participants required
2.Participant characteristics and variables (individual differences).
E.g., Gender, age, personality, IQ, family background, level of education, etc.

Question 3

Define Confounding Variables

Answer 3

Extraneous variable that influences the results of the study e.g., situational variables
■Have to think of constancy in Conditions

Question 4

Give 3 examples of situational variables

Answer 4

1.Environment
2.Room temperature
3.Time of day

Question 5

Give an example of expectancy effects

Answer 5

When someone expects a given result, that expectation unconsciously affects the outcome or report of the expected result
E.g.:
–P’s may expect exercise not to affect their weight gain
–Constancy:keep P’s naïve to the true aim of the study
–Effect not caused by expectancy.

Question 6

State 3 main between-subjects designs used in balancing and matching participant characteristics/variables

Answer 6

Random allocation design
Matched group design
Natural groups design

Question 7

Explain Random Allocation Design

Answer 7

–P’s randomly assigned to conditions (groups)
–Controls for participant variables:
Age, gender, occupation, IQ, smokers etc.
–Sample size in all conditions should be similar

Question 8

Explain Matched Group Design

Answer 8

Matching participants in each group based on a certain characteristic. E.g. Gender, IQ, age, political orientation, ethnicity, smoker/non-smoker, level of education etc.

Question 9

Define Within-Subjects Design

Answer 9

Repeatedly measuring the same people on the same DV.

Question 10

Give disadvantages of Within-Subjects Design

Answer 10

1.Boredom/fatigue
2.Practice (Order) effects:
 Learning
 Fatigue
 Habituation
 Sensitisation
 Contrast
 Adaptation

Question 11

What’s Incomplete Within-Subjects Design?

Answer 11

■Each condition was administered to each participant once.
■Order of administration varied across participants.
■Practice effects balanced across individuals.

Question 12

What 2 main counter-balancing methods are used to prevent practice effects in incomplete within-subjects design?

Answer 12

1.Do all the possible orders. (levels of IV=number of orders/groups needed 2=2x1=2 3=3x2x1=6 etc.)
2.Selected orders. (Latin square design and each condition occurs once in each position.):
■Each condition precedes and follows each other condition only once.

Question 13

Explain Complete Within-Subjects Design

Answer 13

■Each condition administered several times - different orders each time.
■Practice effects balanced for each participant.

Question 14

Give the 2 main counter-balancing methods used in complete within-subjects design

Answer 14

1.Block Randomisation.
2.The ABBA design.

Question 15

Explain Block Randomisation

Answer 15

■A block consists of all conditions.
■P’s complete the condition several times, each time in a different order:
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3
HFSN - SNFH - FHNS etc.
Every participant does all possible orders.

Question 16

Explain The ABBA design

Answer 16

■Present one random sequence of conditions (e.g. FSHN).
■Then present the opposite sequence (NHSF).
■Each condition has the same amount of practice effects.
■If there are only 2 levels of the IV then present them in one order and then the other several times

Question 17

Give an example showing the differences between Incomplete vs. Complete design

Answer 17

■Incomplete: either HIT then No activity or No activity then HIT NOT BOTH
■Complete: HIT then No activity and No activity then HIT. BOTH

Question 18

Give 5 Limitations of the Within-Subjects Design

Answer 18

■Individual differences (e.g. gender, IQ)
■Time-consuming conditions
■Levels of the IV represent an unfolding time sequence that can’t be undone
■The task (DV) can’t be repeated
■Differential transfer between conditions

Question 19

Define Differential Transfer

Answer 19

Effects of one condition affect performance in subsequent conditions.

E.g. Test on the same day in each condition:
Neutral Words – Frightening Words = No transfer
Frightening Words – Neutral Words = Transfer

Question 20

What are 2 ways to avoid the transfer effect?

Answer 20

1.Between-subjects design
2.Within-subjects design with each condition sufficiently spaced

Question 21

Define Observational Methods

Answer 21

■Study of animals and people within a natural environment.
■Used if practical and moral considerations mean no control of
variables.

Question 22

Explain Observation Without
Intervention: Naturalistic observation

Answer 22

■Behaviour as it occurs naturally without intervention
■Passive recorder of behaviour
■Can be overt/ covert

Question 23

Give 3 famous animal observational studies

Answer 23

1.Charles Darwin’s voyage on HMS Beagle.
2.Jane Goodall’s study of chimpanzees.
3.Diane Fossey’s study of mountain gorillas.

Question 24

Give 4 advantages of Observation Without Intervention

Answer 24

■Behaviour in the real world
■High external validity
■Study complex social situations
■Developing theories.

Question 25

Give 3 disadvantages of Observation Without Intervention

Answer 25

■Time-consuming/usually longitudinal studies
■Description not causation
■Not useful for investigating specific hypotheses.

Question 26

Explain Observation with Intervention

Answer 26

■The observer intervenes or manipulates the event/variables in
order to:
–Create a situation which doesn’t occur frequently
–Test the impact of variables on behaviour
–Gain access to a situation/event closed to observation
■Control antecedent events and observe consequent behaviours
■Vary the qualities of a stimulus event to investigate the response

Question 27

State the 3 kinds of Observation with Intervention

Answer 27

1.Participant Observation
2.Structured Observation
3.Field Experiments

Question 28

Define Participant Observation

Answer 28

■Observe and participate.
2 kinds of participant observation:
– Undisguised (overt)
– Disguised (covert)

Question 29

Define Undisguised (Overt) Participant Observation

Answer 29

■Researcher is part of the group.
■In-depth interviews and observation

Question 30

What are the 3 advantages of Undisguised (Overt) Participant Observation?

Answer 30

■No ethical problems
■Natural setting
■Openly record data

Question 31

What’s a disadvantage of Undisguised (Overt) Participant Observation?

Answer 31

Observer influence /
Experimenter’s bias

Question 32

Explain Disguised (Covert) Participant Observation

Answer 32

■Those observed are unaware
■Prevents observer influence E.g. Griffin, J.H. (1961) – Racial prejudice.

Question 33

What are the 2 advantages of Disguised (Covert) Participant Observation?

Answer 33

■Access to particular social
groups
■Natural setting/ecological validity

Question 34

What are the 5 disadvantages of Disguised (Covert) Participant Observation?

Answer 34

■Ethical issues
■Problems recording data
■Researcher bias
■Careful training is required to identify events of interest
■Interaction with participants could affect their behaviour

Question 35

Explain Structured Observation

Answer 35

■Cause an event or set up a situation
■Observe specific behaviour in a
particular setting
■Used by clinical/developmental
psychologists
■No attempt to control other variables
E.g.:
-Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) - Bobo Doll
-Ainsworth (1978) - Strange Situation
■Data recorded using checklist or coding scheme
■ Mutually exclusive categories
■ Same procedures

Question 36

Give 3 advantages of structured observations

Answer 36

■Easy for other researchers to replicate - same coding
■Data easier to analyse, less time consuming
■Easier to test larger samples – generalise findings to a population

Question 37

Give a disadvantage of structured observations

Answer 37

Can introduce demand characteristics – when participants know they are being observed, they can modify their behaviour

Question 38

Explain Field Experiments

Answer 38

■Controlled experiment in a natural setting
■Manipulates IV – observe the effect on behaviour
■Amount of control

Question 39

Explain Qualitative Observation Data

Answer 39

–Natural settings, own words.
–In-depth information.
–Notes, videos, audio recordings etc.

Question 40

Explain Quantitative Observation Data

Answer 40

–Specific, measurable behaviour.
–Checklists, coding systems, scales
etc.

Question 41

Explain Inter-Observer Reliability

Answer 41

■Consistency in measuring
■Inter-observer/interrater
reliability
■Correlation to check the reliability

Question 42

What 2 solutions can be used to improve reliability?

Answer 42

1.Clear categories/definitions
2.Training

Question 43

Observer Influence: Explain Reactivity

Answer 43

Participant modifies their behaviour:
–Socially normative behaviour
Gain approval
–Demand characteristics
Expected behaviour

Question 44

Explain The Hawthorne Effect Discovered by Landsberger (1950)

Answer 44

■When people change their behaviour simply because
they are being studied
■High vs. low lighting conditions
■Workers’ performance improved whenever lighting conditions changed, even from low to high lighting due to observation

Question 45

How can we control Reactivity?

Answer 45

■Unobtrusive measurement
■Disguised participant observation
Adaptation:
–Habituation (decreased response to repetitive stimulus, e.g. when treating phobias)
–Desensitisation (e.g. exposure to violence may reduce anxiety)
Indirect measurement:
–Physical traces (examining remnants of past behaviour)
–Archival data (analysing previously collected data)