Week 4 Flashcards
The Memory Model
This flow chart depicts multiple factors that flow through the ‘Input’, ‘Storage’ then finally the ‘Output’ of the memory model.
Factors affecting inputs to memory
Factors related to the input aspect of eyewitness reliability may be separated into ‘witness’ and ‘situation’ categories. The diagram shows both factors leading into the ‘Input’ of the model.
Witness factors
Age:
Free recall differences Lineup identification (recognition) differences Suggestibility differences
Gender:
Slight recall differences based on stereotyped activities
Race:
Cross-race recognition differences
Personality:
Recall and recognition differences for high self-monitors
Intelligence:
No recall and recognition differences
Situational factors
Stress/arousal:
Recognition and recall impact based on Yerkes-Dodson principle
Event duration
Recall difference at approximately 30 seconds
Weapons effect:
Recall and recognition differences
Frequency:
Recognition differences
Illumination:
Recognition and recall impact based on Yerkes-Dodson principle (especially problematic during twilight hours)
Factors related to the ‘Input’ of memory then moves to the ‘Storage’ section of the model.
Factors affecting storage of memory
Passage of time:
Recall and recognition differences
Rehearsal:
Recognition and recall differences (for both under and over rehearsal)
Meaning/situation heuristic:
Recall and recognition differences
Post-event information:
Issue of 'planted memories
The above factors also lead into the ‘Storage’ section of the model. This then leads into the ‘Output’ section of the model where the below factors also lead into.
Factors affecting output from or retelling of memory
Type of questioning:
Free recall versus prompting questions
Confidence:
No differences in confidence levels
Use of interview protocols
Less bias with formal protocols
False memories:
Linked into Freudian theory of repressed memories and suggestibility
The Yerkes-Dodson principle
Individuals performance can be enhanced by motivation or arousal = however when over-stimulated leads to stress and failure
Suggestibility - How to implant false memories
Imagination
Dream interpretation
Hypnosis
Exposure to other peoples memories
False Information
Doctored Photos
Eyewitness identification
Identification procedures include a show-up, a live line-up and a photo line-up. Photo line-ups usually include one target and five foils who should resemble the target as much as possible. The target is placed in a random position and instructions should indicate that the suspect may not be present in the line-up. One of the main areas of concern in eyewitness identifications is memory.
Memory: an overview
The reliability of witness information is a vitally important factor across the forensic domain. Reliability in witness accounts is needed:
to assist police in identifying a suspect to assist police in confirming the identity of an alleged offender in providing testimony at trials.
The reliability of witness accounts is generally assessed according to recall and recognition and the memory model.
Recognition
This is the ability to elicit stored material (memory) through the use of a cue. An example of a cue might be a multiple choice question where upon seeing the correct answer you remember it.
Recall
This is the ability to elicit stored material (again, a memory) without externally providing any type of cue. An example of recall might be a short answer question.
Read From the lab to the police station – A successful application of eyewitness research (PDF 2.5 MB) (Links to an external site.) (Wells et al., pp. 591–598) as this is an interesting chronicle on how eyewitness testimony was shaped and reshaped in a collaboration between psychological science and the justice system. Don’t panic if this article is a little slow in opening.
Hypothesis: Weak and inconsistent correlation between eyewitness identification accuracy and confidence
Experiment 1:
Method: 48 college students (24 male, 24 female). Randomly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions. Watched 15 mins videos and seated on the witness stand, answering questions, presented with photos. Variations - standard group = no equipment was present in the courtroom, time delay = provided confidence estimates 5 mins after, camera-presence = testimony recorded, RSA = watch themselves on TV and recorded, rewound and played back
Experiment 2:
Method: 33 students, randomly assigned, watched a video of a crime, with 6 photos, asked questions.
Experiment 3:
Method: 75 students, randomly assigned, same as experiment 2 but included manipulation.
Experiment 4:
Method: 72 students, randomly assigned, changed photos to a booklet format, one picture per page, asked questions
Results = average correlation
Implications = adding to existing theories if people can really be an eyewitness, adding extra steps in the legal system to weed out mis-represented witnesses.
Read Eyewitness identification (PDF 121 KB) (Links to an external site.)(Brewer & Wells, 2011, pp. 24–27) as it discusses the importance of eyewitness identifications in many police investigations and courtroom decisions. This article discusses how identification decision accuracy is shaped not only by the quality of a witness’s memory but also by social-influence variables.
General Impairments:
- encoding conditions (divided attention, short exposure duration, long viewing distance)
- confidence decisions, rapid decision
- Bias (poor lighting, cross-racial id)
Directions for Research:
- Research again
- interactions between general and suspect bias variables
- line up - how much does the suspect appear in a line-up and the process of the line up
Read From the lab to the police station – A successful application of eyewitness research (PDF 2.5 MB) (Links to an external site.) (Wells et al., pp. 591–598) as this is an interesting chronicle on how eyewitness testimony was shaped and reshaped in a collaboration between psychological science and the justice system. Don’t panic if this article is a little slow in opening. .
Development of Eye Witness:
- 1900’s found errors
- 1970’s began testing errors
- Event memory system variables - affected by exposure to leading questions, police make systematic and avoidable errors on the information they provide (interrupting, premeditated questions, too many closed questions), recall elements (social dynamics, memory and processors, communication between interviewer and interviewee)
- Identification Memory Systems Variables - line up issues, weapon focus, cross-race id, fillers, instructions prior to viewing, sequential vs simultaneous presentations variable (relative judgement = which one closely resembles the suspect), confidence malleability
- Refining the message of system variable eye witness research - more research
- Pressure points on the justice systems - expert testimony, media pressure, DNA exonerated cases
- Janet Reno = made the guide, supports law enforcement, resistance of prosecutors
- The Guide = establishes rapport, encourages the witness to volunteer information without prompts, ask open ended questions, cautioning against guessing, one suspect per id procedure, selection of line up fillers (fit the witness description), Prelineup instructions, avoid post id suggestions, the sequential line up (more ideal)
List some limitations of Eyewitness Testimony
Brewer & Wells, 2011:
- encoding conditions (divided attention, short exposure duration, long viewing distance)
- confidence decisions, rapid decision
- Bias (poor lighting, cross-racial id)
Other:
- Limitations of memory. Human memory is often viewed as static, but in reality, memories of perceptual experiences are not necessarily fixed. …
- Environmental factors. …
- Questionable lineup procedures. …
- Misrepresentation during trial. …
- Questioning eyewitness testimony.
Factors that affect the accuracy of Eyewitness testimony
Wells et al.:
- Event memory system variables - affected by exposure to leading questions, police make systematic and avoidable errors on the information they provide (interrupting, premeditated questions, too many closed questions), recall elements (social dynamics, memory and processors, communication between interviewer and interviewee)
- Identification Memory Systems Variables - line up issues, weapon focus, cross-race id, fillers, instructions prior to viewing, sequential vs simultaneous presentations variable (relative judgement = which one closely resembles the suspect), confidence malleability
Modules:
During the Input Phase
Witness Factors - Age (free call differences, line-up identification - recognition - differences, suggestibility differences) Gender (slight recall differences based on stereotyped activities), Race (cross-race recognition differences), Personality (recall and recognition differences for high self-monitors), Intelligence (no recall or recognition differences)
Situational Factors - Stress/Arousal (recognition and recall impact based on Yerkes-Dodson Prinicple), Event Duration (recall differences at approximately 30 seconds), Weapons effect (recall and recognition differences), Frequency (recognition differences), Illumination (recognition and recall impact based on Yerkes-Dodson Principle especially problematic during twilight hours)
During the Storage Phase:
Passage of time (recall and recognition differences), Rehearsal (recognition and recall differences for both under and over rehearsal), meaning/situation heuristic (recall and recognition differences), Post-event information (issues of planted memories)
During the Output Phase:
Type of Questioning (free call vs prompting questions), Confidence (no differences in confidence levels), use of interview protocols (less bias with formal protocols), False memories (linked into Freudian theory of repressed memories and suggestibility)
The Guide:
- Janet Reno = made the guide, supports law enforcement, resistance of prosecutors
- The Guide = establishes rapport, encourages the witness to volunteer information without prompts, ask open ended questions, cautioning against guessing, one suspect per id procedure, selection of line up fillers (fit the witness description), Prelineup instructions, avoid post id suggestions, the sequential line up (more ideal)
Is there a difference between recognition and recall
Yes:
Recall: this is the ability to elicit stored material (again, a memory) without externally providing any type of cue. An example of recall might be a short answer question.
Recognition: this is the ability to elicit stored material (memory) through the use of a cue. An example of a cue might be multiple choice question where upon seeing the correct answer you remember it.
The memory model comprises the sequence of:
Input, storage, output
Recall is the ability to elicit stored material (memory) through the use of a cue. Recognition is the ability to elicit stored material (again, a memory) without externally providing any type of cue.
Is this statement true or false?
False
According to this week’s learning materials, the main area of concern in eyewitness identifications is:
Memory
In the memory model, the factors that correspond to the storage of memory are:
Passage of time, rehearsal, meaning/situation heuristic, post-event information
Is the following statement true or false?
The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that an individual’s performance can be enhanced to an optimum point through arousal or motivation, however, if the individual is overstimulated it could possibly lead to stress and failure.
True
