Week 2 (learning & cognition 1)

Question 1

Pavlov quote about classical conditioning

Answer 1

“The normal animal must respond not only to stimuli which themselves bring immediate benefit or harm, but also to those that only signal the approach of these stimuli; though it is not the sight and sound of the beast of prey which is in itself harmful…..but its teeth and claws.” -Ivan Pavlov

Question 2

Classical conditioning:

Answer 2

Essentially the brain learns and associates stimuli to predict the likelihood of events. This Phenomenon is so powerful across species because fundamental process of human nature

Question 3

Learning

Answer 3

The set of biological, cognitive and social processes through which organisms make meaning from their experiences, producing long-lasting changes in their behaviour, abilities, and knowledge.
* Learning helps us to predict the future from our past experiences and use these predictions to guide adaptive behaviours.

Question 4

Stimuli

Answer 4

• Biologically significant stimuli relate to survival:

Question 5

3 Reasons why Stimuli Relate to Survival

Answer 5

1. Stimuli that naturally cause either defensive (fight, flight, freeze) or appetitive (approach) reflex responses.
2. That is, stimuli that are naturally punishing (aversive) or rewarding (appetitive)
3. In the language of conditioning, these are called “unconditioned stimuli’ or “reinforcers”.

Question 6

2 Facets of Non-associative learning:

Answer 6

1. Sensitisation
2. Habituation

Question 7

Sensitisation

Answer 7

the temporary state of heightened attention and responsivity that accompanies sudden and surprising events. The learner remains alert to potentially threatening stimuli in the environment and has an increased response to subsequent stimuli.

Question 8

Habituation

Answer 8

the gradual diminishing of attention and responsivity that occurs when a stimulus persists.

Question 9

Explain how an octopus uses the 2 facets of non-associative learning

Answer 9

octopus comes with reflex mechanism and is hard wire do inking response when it feels nervous. This behaviour is un-learned behaviour, S and H.
S: its nervous system is sensitised to react to possibly “scary” stimuli from a loud noise.
H: its nervous system learns to dampen the stimulation if the noise continues

Question 10

Associative Learning

Answer 10

learning associations (relationships) between stimuli, and/or between stimuli and behavioural responses.

Question 11

Is conditioning non-associative or associative learning?

Answer 11

Associative: causation involves a casual structure of the environment: if X then Y

Question 12

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING DEFINITION

Answer 12

Learning a predictive relationship between an originally neutral environmental event and a biologically significant event that naturally causes a reflex response, so that the previously neutral event becomes a meaningful stimulus that produces the reflex response on its own.

Question 13

Explanation of Classical Conditioning

Answer 13

In other words, a classically conditioned response is a learned reflex response to a stimulus that would not usually cause it.

Question 14

Pavlov (1897)

Answer 14

Pavlov was interested in finding our what a reflect response, because dogs salivated before food is presented learning became conditioned

* Pavlov began to control the stimuli that occurred before the food
* Used the ‘bell’ sound  of a metronome as his neutral stimulus
* Presented the sound immediately before he presented the food.  
* The food naturally causes a reflex salivation response
* Pavlov wanted to see if the bell could could come to cause salivation on its own through repeated association with food during learning. Described three phases of this process.

Question 15

Three Phases of Classical Conditioning

Answer 15

1. The conditions that exitsts before conditioning (prior learning)
2. During conditioning (learning associations)
3. After conditioning

Question 16

1. Prior learning (Three Phases of Classical Conditioning)

Answer 16

a) The innate reflect responses of the learner that occur to stimuli that are naturally rewarding (appetitive) or punishing (aversive or threatening)

b) the neutrality of stimuli that have not been associated with appetitive or aversive stimuli

Question 17

2. Learning Associations (Three Phases of Classical Conditioning)

Answer 17

Experiencing a predictive relationship between a neutral stimulus and a biologically relevant stimulus

Question 18

3. After Conditioning (Three Phases of Classical Conditioning)

Answer 18

The previously neutral stimulus becomes able to produce a learned reflex response in preparation/expectancy of a biologically relevant stimulus

Question 19

UCS

Answer 19

Unconditioned Stimulus (e.g. dog food)

Always produces an associated response reflex

Question 20

UCR

Answer 20

Unconditioned Response (e.g. dog drools)

Question 21

US + UCR =

Answer 21

Reflection

Question 22

NS

Answer 22

Initially Neutral Stimulus (e.g. bell before conditioning)

Question 23

NS + UCS + UCR =

Answer 23

Working on building a conditioned response

Question 24

CS

Answer 24

Conditioned Stimuli (the bell after training)

Question 25

CR

Answer 25

Conditioned Response (now dog drools at bell)

Question 26

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING DEFINITION (in phase terms)

Answer 26

Learns a predictive relationship between an originally NS and an UCS and its CRm si that previously NS becomes a CS that can cause a CR

Question 27

Stimulus Generalisation

Answer 27

Pavlov demonstrated that the classically conditioned salivation response would generalise (transfer) to other similar stimuli. (e.g. any bell would cause drooling)

Question 28

Stimulus Discrimination

Answer 28

To isolate a conditioned response so that it is not generalised (e.g. only call bell not bicycle bell)

Question 29

Extinction

Answer 29

Being able to extinguish a conditioned response
this is the learned inhibition of the CS-UCS association

Question 30

Rapid Reacquisition

Answer 30

Bringing back a conditioned response after a sustained extinction
The return of a conditioned response after a period of extinction when the conditioned stimulus is presented on its own.

Question 31

Relationship between Extinction and Rapid Reacquisition

Answer 31

This explains that extinction does not extinguish behaviour in all cases because it is hardwired into nervous systems. If the extinction learning occurs in a specific context the reflex may on last in that situation

Question 32

Watson (1919)

Answer 32

Watson viewed Pavlov’s study as the epitome of objective science and believed humans are conditioned solely from our environment (NURTURE side)

Question 33

Watson quote about classical conditioning

Answer 33

“Give me a dozen healthy infants… and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him (sic) to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist….even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors”. – J.B. Watson, 1919.

Question 34

Operant Conditioning

Answer 34

Behaviour is shaped by the learner’s history of experiencing rewards and punishments for their actions.

Question 35

Skinner quote on operant conditioning

Answer 35

“Behaviour operates on the environment to generate consequences.” - B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
* Burrhus Frederic Skinner who took the School of Behaviorism beyond classical conditioning by investigating the processes by which voluntary behaviours are shaped by their consequences.
* Skinner also focussed more on reinforcement rather than punishment

Question 36

The Skinner Box

Answer 36

Redmond draws a parallel between the lever in the skinner box to the reinforcement from gambling

* Skinner developed the Skinner Box, an experimental apparatus that can control animals within a laboratory setting. Basically a small box with a level that a rat can eventually realises it can use. 
* Each lever pressed was connected to a computer, exposed stimuli also controlled by computer 
* Rats were kept hungry eating 2/3 of required daily calories 
*  Pressing the lever was the target behavior, which could be strengthened through reinforcement and weakened through punishment. 
    *  Reinforcement = food

Question 37

SKINNER’S DEFINITION OF REINFORCEMENT

Answer 37

A behavior is reinforced (strengthened) whenever a desirable outcome is the consequence.
* Behaviours that are reinforced are more likely to be repeated.
* A reinforcer is any consequence of a behaviour that makes that behaviour more likely to recur in future.
* Reinforcers can be either positive (+) or negative (-).

Question 38

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 38

An animal will learn to reproduce a behaviour if the consequence is receiving something pleasant.

Question 39

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 39

An animal will learn to reproduce a behavior if the consequence is that something unpleasant will stop.

Question 40

Positive Reinforcer

Answer 40

something pleasant that is added to increase behavior

Question 41

Negative Reinforcer

Answer 41

something unpleasant that is removed to increase behaviour

Question 42

Explain Continuous Reinforcement

Answer 42

• Continuous reinforcement rarely occurs in natural environment
• Behaviour is usually reinforced on a partial “schedule”
• Partial reinforcement leads to more persistent learning because the learner becomes accustomed to reinforcement occurring on some occasions and not others
• Continuous reinforcement leads to rapid extinction once the reinforcer is withheld.

Question 43

Explain the Extinction of Reinforced Behaviour

Answer 43

• Extinction of an operantly conditioned behaviour occurs when reinforcement is withheld.
  
  • Not immediate - sometimes there is a brief increase in responding referred to as an extinction burst followed by decrease in trained behaviour.
  • Th figure shows that responses that are reinforced partially will be harder to extinguish than those reinforced continuously

Question 44

Discuss Skinner’s progression to Successive Approximations

Answer 44

• Shaping reinforces successive approximations to the desired behaviour (reinforcing small steps).
  
  • Start by reinforcing a high frequency component of the desired response.
  • Then drop this reinforcement – behaviour becomes more variable again.
  • Await a response that is still closer to the desired response – then reintroduce the reinforcer.
  • Keep cycling through as closer and closer approximations to the desired behaviour are achieved.
  • Enables the molding of a response that is not normally part of an animal’s repertoire
  • Skinner was able to teach pigeons how to play ping pong for rewards (he did many animal experiments)

Question 45

Punishment

Answer 45

A behavior is punished (weakened) whenever the learner experiences an undesirable consequence for that behaviour.
* Behaviours that are followed by punishment are less likely to be repeated.

Question 46

Punisher

Answer 46

A punisher is any consequence of a behavior that makes that behaviour less likely to recur in future
* Punishers can also be either positive (+) or negative (-).

Question 47

Positive Punishment

Answer 47

An animal will stop producing a behaviour if the consequence is the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus.

Question 48

Negative Punishment (response cost)

Answer 48

An animal will stop producing a behaviour if the consequence is the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus.

Question 49

Positive Punisher

Answer 49

An animal will stop producing a behaviour if the consequence is the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus.

Question 50

Negative Punisher

Answer 50

A pleasant stimulus that weakens behaviour when removed as a consequence of the behaviour

Question 51

When is Punishment Effective (CCC)

Answer 51

1. Contigency
2. Contiguity
3. Consistency

Question 52

Contigency (CCC)

Answer 52

the relationship between the behaviour and the punisher must be clear

Question 53

Contiguity (CCC)

Answer 53

the punisher must follow the behaviour swiftly

Question 54

Consistency (CCC)

Answer 54

the punisher needs occur for every occurrence of the behaviour

Question 55

Explain the Drawbacks of Punishment

Answer 55

• Positive punishment rarely works for long-term behaviour change.
  * It tends to only suppress behaviour
  
  • It does not teach a more desirable behaviour.
  • If the threat of punishment is removed, the behaviour returns.
  • Produces negative feelings in the learner, which do not promote new learning.
  • Harsh punishment may teach the learner to use such behaviour towards others (social learning).

Question 56

Explain the Alternatives to Punishment

Answer 56

• Stop reinforcing the problem behaviour (extinction).
  
  • Reinforce an alternative behaviour that is both constructive and incompatible with the undesirable behaviour.
  • Reinforce the non-occurrence of the undesirable behaviour.

Question 57

Antecedents

Answer 57

a stimulus that cues an organism to perform a learned behavior.

Question 58

Explain Antecedents

Answer 58

• Stimuli in the environment can become antecedents for operantly conditioned behaviours
  * An antecedent is a ‘cue’ that signals the availability of a reinforcer.
  * Note that the antecedent-reinforcer relationship is based on a classically conditioned association
  * Classically conditioned associations become cues for operant behaviours.

Question 59

An example of Antecedents with mobile phones

Answer 59

• For example, the sight of my mobile-phone is associated with the rewarding consequences of scrolling through social media
  * The phone becomes a cue (antecedent) for the voluntary behaviour of scrolling social media and its attendant rewards.

*this can lead to habits and addictions

Question 60

The ABC model of Operant Conditioning

Answer 60

Antecedent → Behaviour → Consequence

Question 61

Discriminant Stimuli

Answer 61

the antecedent stimulus that has stimulus control over behavior because the behavior was reliably reinforced in the presence of that stimulus in the past. Discriminative stimuli set the occasion for behaviors that have been reinforced in their presence in the past.

Question 62

Skinner’s work with Discriminant Stimuli

Answer 62

• Skinner taught pigeons to turn circles counter-clockwise to receive a reward when in one box, and clockwise to receive a reward in another box
• The pigeons learned that each box provided a distinct discriminant stimulus for each behaviour.

Question 63

Particial Reinforcement

Answer 63

Tens to last longer than continously reinforced behaviour