Week 2 - Geographical and cultural frameworks of exchange and encounter

Question 1

Afroeurasia: Eastern Hemisphere

Answer 1

Global system to about 1490s included christian, buddhist and islamic worlds
Europe, West Africa, China and SE Asia at the ‘edges’
Centrality of islamic world
Connection between place and faith
Zones of exclusion: Australia, S Africa, Asian Tundra

Question 2

judaism

Answer 2

Chosen people of God - observe covenant revealed by Abraham, Moses and prophets
Obligations (mitzvot) such as worship, ritual, dietary
History of exile and diaspora
586BCE destruction of first temple and first exile
530sBCE return to Zion and beginning of second temple period
70CE destruction of second temple and beginning of second exile
Texts: Torah/Pentateuch (5th BCE-1st CE), Mishna (oral Torah 200CE), Talmud (commentaries by 600CE), Midrash (exegesis/interpretation 400-1200CE)
Significant intellectuals

Question 3

christianity

Answer 3

Jesus movement 30s CE, new covenant with God after death
New Testament added to Hebrew Bible (80-11CE)
Persecuted but later adopted by Roman Empire
Spread across Syria, Anatolia, N Africa and Europe by 400s (because of Romans)
Series of councils to determine right belief (300s-700s)
Correct belief debated
Officialness because of Romans
Schism (division) between Latin and Greek Christianity 1054
Local christian communities typically lead by bishops
The pope = spiritual authority of Western Christianity
Patriarch and emperor as authorities in Eastern (Greek) Christianity
Various other denominations such as Nestorian, coptic, Syriac, Chaldean

Question 4

Islam

Answer 4

Muhammad (last messenger from Muslims)
Born in Mecca 571
610: first revelation
622: migration to Medina, start of Islamic calendar (lunar)
640s his revelations are codified, becoming the Quaran
Sayings of Muhammad: Hadith
Science of interpreting scripture (exegesis)
Divisions:
Sunnis
No divinely designated political leader, choice of community
Caliphs= political leaders
‘Ulama (scholars) = religious authorities
Caliphates (region under Caliph’s control) become hereditary in 611
Most common and widespread
Shi’is or Shi’ites
Supporters of ‘Ali (Muhammad’s son in law)
‘Alid lineage = divinely designated authority (political and religious)
Imams = political and religious leader, held to be fallible
Now most concentrated in Iran (former Persia), Iraq

Question 5

Buddhism

Answer 5

Founded by Gautama in 6th c BCE
Born in Nepal
Adopted an ascetic life of meditation and begging to attain enlightenment and ultimate freedom from suffering
Followers revered him as the Buddha (enlightened being)
Drew up Vinyana (code for monastic practice) and the Suttas (discord’s)
Spread across central, eastern, southern and SE Asia in first millennium C

Question 6

things to notice

Answer 6

Central geographic location of islamic world in eastern hemisphere (go-between influence for encounters)
Presence of diasporic Jewish populations
Always encountering and being encountered
Linked to others, distant communities
Common agents of exchange
Frequent connection between dominance of a religion and observance by ruling dynasty of class
Religion and politics intertwine
Dominance of a religion at ruling level doesn’t reflect on whole populace
Religions are not uniform, clearly defined blocks
Overlapping geographical limits of major religions
Internal divisions of belief and practice
Religions are shaped by local cultural forces
And religions shape local culture

Question 7

premodern borderlands

Answer 7

Multiple ways to conceptualise:
Lines along which political or other groups are demarcated
Areas in which unique institutions develop in response to loose central control
Zones of interaction (cultural, political, religious) producing mixed culture and unique challenges

Characteristics:
Distance from its nominated centre (political, religious) - variable imposition of external controls
Separation from and interaction with neighbouring regions - tensions
Diversity (but not necessarily integration or tolerance)
Militarised; common violence
Opportunities for advancement and expansion of political, religious etc control

Encounters:
Military aggression
Warefare
Rebellion
Conquest
Raids
Political turbulence
Diplomacy
Trade
Communication
Travel
Intellection
Cultural
Artistic

Question 8

Roger’s Sicily

Answer 8

Desirable location, repeatedly contested
Mercenaries from normandy come in 1060s - conquer it
Roger II is crowned as first King in 1130
Supported by antipope Anacletus II
Defender of Mediterranean Christianity
Military ambitions on N Africa, Al Andalus and E Mediterranean
Blends Islamic, Byzantine and Latin forms of legitimacy and symbolism

Question 9

Hybrid culture

Answer 9

George of Antioch (right)
Emir or emirs to Roger from 1126 (prior to coronation)
Linked to Armenian diaspora
Family experience in service of Byzantine emperors and Zarid emirs
Multicultural, multilingual
Diplomat, military commander
Architect of Roger’s courtly culture

Question 10

Al Idrisi

Answer 10

Born N Africa 1099-1100
Noble family descended from Hammudid and Idrisid dynasties
Descended from prophet Muhammad
May have been political target of rival islamic dynasties
Studied in cordoba
Travelled N Africa, Asia Minor and W Europe
Invited to Sicily by Roger in 1138-9 and received royal pension
Made maps for Roger so that he could control better - tried to be accurate

Question 11

Al-Idrisi’s map

Answer 11

Diverse places included:
England, Ireland, Scandinavia
Madeira, Bermuda etc.
Places that it is said westerners found later

Types of knowledge:
Locations, distances, routes
Mountains, rivers, forests, road
Climate, crops, products
People, customs

Sources of knowledge:
Ancient Greek texts and maps
Islamic maps
Naval and military intelligence
Mercantile reports
Travellers

Question 12

Davis-Secord summary

Answer 12

• historical and modern migration has resulted in diversity of culture, people groups and religion in Sicily. Conquests have lead to many changes in religion and culture (DNA)
• Central location of the Mediterranean, overlap of civilisations serving as zones of interaction between them, importance of travel and how Sicily acted as a stop point
• Various utilization of the island for economic and geostrategic purposes by: mycenaeans, greeks, romans, germanic powers, byzantine empire, islamic caliphates
• Robust agricultural potential made Sicily attractive for conquests, its mountainous and hilly terrain made it challenging for invaders, its centrality contributes to its multiculturalism.
• Sicily’s connectivity is determined, not by geographical situation, weather, currents, or technology, but by political, economic, and religious associations. Contrary to popular belief, whoever controls the Mediterranean controls Sicily. The relevance of land travel is a relevant point of discussion, even though it is an island
• Sicily experienced pull from Islamic, Greek Christian, and Latin Christian spheres, and was visited by travellers, traders, and intellectuals from each.

Question 13

Al Idrisi - what?

Answer 13

• Translations of narratives regarding Roger II’s reign
• Testament to R’s success
• Treatise on geography (of Sicily)
• Inventory of how the island works

Question 14

where?

Answer 14

• Roger’s court, Palermo

Question 15

why?

Answer 15

• Celebrating R’s success
• Intellectual exercise
• Desire to document
• To take his place in historical narrative

Question 16

encounter and exchange

Answer 16

• military conquest(s) of Roger I
• labels perceived “frontier zones”
• labels burial place of Roger I and date (Mileto fortress in Calabria, 494 of Hegirah)
• Details extent of Roger’s kingdom “130 localities, towns or fortresses” and “agricultural estates, villages and other places.”
• reference to industry and production inventory such as “River Abbas… a very large number of mills…”
• Makes reference to prior Muslim population of Khalisa, where “…the Sultan and the upper classes resided.”
• Labels Taormina as “…the meeting point for all the caravans and travellers going to Messina.”