Week 2: Emotion and Motivation Flashcards
Define emotion
a temporary state that includes unique experiences and physiological activity, and that prepares people for action; includes mental and physical features
How do scientists map emotions?
Emotions are mapped on 2 dimensions: valence and arousal
Valence: how positive a feeling is
Arousal: how energetic the feeling is
Why do scientists map feelings rather than define them?
It is difficult to describe or define feelings, so instead scientists map them; they describe how close/far away they are to one another (ex. Excitement is closer to happiness than to anger)
What is appraisal?
conscious or unconscious evaluations and interpretations of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus or event; we naturally appraise events on a number of dimensions, such as self-relevance, importance, our ability to cope with it, and our ability to control it
What is action tendency?
a readiness to engage in a specific set of emotion-relevant behaviours
What is the relationship between emotion, appraisal, and action tendency?
Appraisal leads to emotion, and
emotion leads to action tendency
(ex. something is appraised as repulsive -> emotion = disgust -> action tendency = avoidance)
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
Feelings are simply the perception of one’s own physiological responses to a stimulus
What 3 basic facts are at odds with the James-Lange theory of emotion?
- Some of our emotional responses happen before our bodily responses do (ex. You may feel embarrassed immediately after being pranked but your body may take 15-30 seconds to blush)
- Many things cause bodily responses without causing emotions (ex. Feeling warm makes your heart beat faster, but you aren’t afraid of being outside in the summer)
- Not every emotion has a unique set of bodily responses; different emotional experiences are sometimes associated with the same set of bodily responses, or the same emotional experience may have different bodily responses at times
What is the two-factor theory of emotion?
stimuli trigger a general state of physiological arousal, which is then interpreted as a specific emotion
What are the two different pathways that information about a stimulus travels to the amygdala?
- A “fast” pathway that goes from the eye to the thalamus and then directly to the amygdala
- A “slow” pathway that goes from the eye to the thalamus and then to the cortex and then to the amygdala
The cortex conducts a relatively slow, full-scale investigation of the information while the amygdala uses the information to determine if the stimulus is relevant to survival; if the amygdala does deem it relevant to survival, it helps produce a bodily response. Once the cortex has finished its investigation of the information it has received, it allows the cortex to downregulate the amygdala (reduce the amygdala’s activity)
When it comes to emotion, what are the amygdala and cortex responsible for?
Amygdala: creating emotion
Cortex: inhibiting emotion
What is emotional expression?
An observable sign of the emotional state
What is the universality hypothesis?
All emotional expressions mean the same thing to all people in all places and times
Which emotions are considered universal?
- Anger
- Disgust
- Fear
- Happiness
- Sadness
What is the difference between symbols and signs when it comes to emotion?
Symbols: arbitrary designations that have no causal relationship with the things (emotions) they symbolize (ex. Words, emoticons)
Signs: caused by the things (emotions) they signify (ex. Facial expressions; a smile is a sign for happiness)
The signs of an emotion can have multiple meanings (ex. Is this facial expression joy or sorrow?), so we use context to figure it out (is the person at a wedding or a funeral?)
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
Emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they typically signify; may also extend to the rest of the body (ex. feeling more confident when holding your hands on your hips)
What is the benefit of mimicking others’ facial expressions, even if we don’t notice we are doing it?
helps us identify their emotion more easily; people who can’t mimic facial expression (ex. Due to paralysis or botox) and those who cannot feel certain emotions (ex. Due to damage to the amygdala) have a hard time identifying those emotions in other people
What is a display rule, and what are its four techniques?
a norm for the appropriate expression of emotion; obeying display rules requires using several techniques…
- Intensification: involves exaggerating the expression of emotions, as people do when pretending to be delighted by an unwanted gift
- Deintensification: involves muting the expression of one’s emotion, as athletes do when they lose their event but try not to look too disappointed
- Masking: expressing one emotions while feeling another, as a judge does when they try to seem interested in, rather than contemptuous of, a lawyer’s argument
- Neutralizing: showing no expression of the emotion one is feeling, as when a card player tries to keep a poker face
What are reliable muscles
Facial muscles that people cannot easily control; provide clues to the sincerity of an expression
What are some sincere facial expression features?
- Morphology: the use of reliable muscles (ex. eyes crinkling while smiling)
- Symmetrical expression
- Duration: lasting between 0.5 and 5 seconds
- Temporal patterning: starting and ending smoothly
What are some insincere facial expression features?
- Lack of eyes crinkling when smiling
- Asymmetrical expressions
- Too short or too long
- Abrupt onsets and offsets
What are some signs that someone is lying?
- Speaking more slowly
- Taking longer to respond to questions
- Responding with less detail
- A performance that is “too good” (speech lacks the small imperfections a truth-teller’s would contain)
- Less fluent, less engaging, more uncertain, and more tense
What are some signs someone is telling the truth?
- Superfluous details
- Correcting themselves
- Expressing self-doubt
What are two reasons that people are not very good at detecting lies?
- We have a tendency to believe others
2. People don’t know what to look for when trying to detect lies
Why are polygraph machines not useful?
Their error rate is too high; if one is set to maximum sensitivity, it will catch more liars but will also “catch” many innocent people who are not lying; if set to minimum sensitivity, it will falsely accuse fewer innocent people but also catch fewer liars
What is motivation?
The internal causes of purposeful behaviour
What is an instinct?
the faculty of acting in such a way as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the ends, and without previous education in the performance; the natural tendency to seek a particular goal
On what grounds (2) did behaviourists reject the concept of instinct?
- They believed that behaviours were fully explained by the external stimuli that elicited them and that there was no need to posit hypothetical internal states
- They believed that complex behaviours were learned, not hard-wired
What is a drive?
A need that is produced by disequilibirum in the body
What is drive-reduction theory?
the primary motivation of all organisms is to reduce their drives (animals don’t eat because it is rewarding, but because they are motivated to reduce their drive for food and derive reward from that reduction)
The concepts of instinct and drives are not used in psychology often anymore, but what two important things do they remind us?
- The concept of instinct reminds us that nature endows us with certain desires
- The concept of drive reminds us that our actions are often attempts to fulfill them
What is the hedonic principle?
people are primarily motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain; feeling good is our reason for being, and we will even purposefully do things that feel bad (ex. Going to the dentist) if we believe they will make us feel even better later
Name 2 examples of how people have a poor understanding of emotion regulation strategies
- Most people think suppression (inhibiting the outward signs of an emotional state) is an effective emotion regulation strategy, but it isn’t and requires a lot of effort, making it harder for people to function well
- Most people think affect labelling (putting one’s feelings into words) has little or no impact on emotions, but it is actually quite effective in reducing the intensity of emotional states
What is reappraisal?
changing one’s emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus (ex. One’s heart rate going down after reimagining a picture of a woman crying as being at a wedding); people who are naturally skilled at reappraisal tend to be mentally and physically healthier as well as have better relationships; also called reframing
How is hunger produced?
- If your body has insufficient energy (disequilibrium), it sends an orexigenic signal to your brain telling you to switch hunger on
- If your body has sufficient energy, it sends an anorexigenic signal to your brain telling you to switch hunger off
What is ghrelin?
a hormone that is produced in the stomach and appears to be one of the orexigenic signals that tells the brain to switch hunger on; also binds to neurons in the hippocampus and temporarily improves learning and memory (perhaps so we become better at locating food)
What is leptin?
a chemical secreted by fat cells and an anorexigenic signal that tells the brain to switch hunger off, seemingly by making food less rewarding
What are the two hormones involved in hunger signals? Which is associated with orexigentic signals and which with anorexigenic signals?
Ghrelin: orexigenic signals
Leptin: anorexigenic signals
Explain the idea of “different hungers”
Some researchers argue that there are actually many different hungers, each a response to a unique nutritional deficit and turned on by a unique chemical messenger (ex. rats deprived of protein will seek out protein and pass on fats or carbs)
Which area of the brain is the primary reciever of hunger signals?
Hypothalamus:
• The lateral hypothalamus receives orexigenic signals (damage = no hunger signal)
• The ventromedial hypothalamus receives anorexigenic signals (damage = no signal to stop eating)
Order the eating disorders described in the textbook from most to least common
- Binge eating disorder
- Bulimia nervosa
- Anorexia nervosa
Define obesity
Obesity is defined as having a BMI of 30 or greater
What are some of the consequences of a high BMI?
- Reduced lifespan
- Lower psychological wellbeing
- Lower self-esteem
- Lower quality of life
- Viewed more negatively by others
What are some of the suggested causes of obesity?
- Genetics
- Heritable personality traits (ex. impulsivity)
- Toxins in the environment which disrupt the functioning of the endocrine system can predispose people to obesity
- A dearth of “good bacteria” in the gut
- Everyday wear-and-tear on the hippocampus
- Having a brain that is more sensitive to rewards
- Leptin resistance
What is evolutionary mismatch?
traits that were adaptive in an ancestral environment may be maladaptive in a modern environment
What two strategies did our ancestors evolve to avoid starvation?
- Developed a strong attraction to foods that provide large amounts of energy per bite (protein, fats, etc.)
- Developed an ability to store excess food energy in the form of fat, enabling us to eat more than we needed when food was plentiful and then live off our reserves when food was scarce
In what ways do our bodies resist weight loss?
- When we lose weight, the size of our fat cells decreases, but the number does not. Once our bodies have added a fat cell, that cell is with us pretty much forever. It may become smaller when we lose weight, but it is unlikely to die. It’s always there, just waiting to be re-enlarged.
- Our bodies respond to dieting by decreasing our metabolism; when our bodies sense there is famine, they decrease our caloric requirements by finding more efficient ways to turn food into fat; with each round of dieting, our bodies become increasingly efficient at converting food to fat
What is metabolism?
The rate at which the body uses energy
Which 3 hormones play a key role in sexual interest?
- Dihydroepiandosterone (DHEA): involved in the initial onset of sexual desire; begins to be produced around age 6, and is a slow-acting hormone so most people experience their first sexual interest at around age 10
- Testosterone (suggested to be the hormonal basis of sexual motivation in both men and women)
- Estrogen
Most female mammals only experience sexual desire during ovulation, but female humans experience indepedently of ovulation. Why might that be?
May have evolved in order to keep men “home” to assist in rearing young, rather than pursuing other mates
What are the 4 stages of the human sexual response cycle?
- Excitement phase: muscle tension and blood flow increase in/around the sexual organs, heart and respiration rates increase, blood pressure rises, nipples and penises become erect, vaginas become lubricated, and clitorises become swollen
- Plateau phase: heart rate and muscle tension increase further, males’ urinary bladders close to prevent urine from mixing with semen, muscles at the base of the penis begin a steady rhythmic contraction, males’ Cowper gland may secrete a small amount of lubricating fluid, the clitoris may withdraw slightly, the vagina becomes more lubricated, the outer vagina swells and its muscles tighten and reduce the diameter of its opening
- Orgasm phase: breathing becomes extremely rapid, pelvic muscles begin a series of rhythmic contractions, quick contraction of the anus/lower pelvic muscles/uterine+vaginal contractions, ejaculation occurs
- Resolution phase: muscles relax, blood pressure drops, and the body returns to a resting state
(Refractory period: further stimulation does not produce excitement; may lasts from minutes to days and is typically longer for men than women)
In what two ways do our psychological motivations differ from our biological motivations?
- We share our biological motivations with most other animals, but our psychological motivations appear to be unique to humans
- Our biological motivations are of a few basic kinds (food, sex, oxygen, sleep, etc.), but our psychological motivations are virtually limitless
On what 3 dimensions do psychological motivations vary?
- Extrinsic vs intrinsic
- Conscious vs unconscious
- Approach vs avoidance
What is intrinsic motivation, and what are some of its benefits?
a motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding (they are a payoff rather than having a payoff; ex. eating chocolate)
Benefits: working harder, enjoying what you do more, being more creative
What is extrinsic motivation, and what is its main benefit?
a motivation to take actions that lead to reward (not a pleasure themselves, but increase pleasure in the long run; ex. brushing our teeth to avoid cavities)
Benefit: the ability to delay gratification (extrinsic motivation) is a better predictor of a child’s grades in school than their IQ is
How can rewards undermine intrinsic motivation?
under some circumstances (ex. being paid to do something), people interpret rewards as information about the intrinsic good ness of an activity (“If they had to pay me to do that, it couldn’t have been very fun”)
How can threats undermine intrinsic motivation?
They change intrinsic motivation into extrinsic motivation (ex. by threats, fines, etc.), which decreases motivation and increases the undesired behaviour
What is the difference between conscious and unconscious motivations?
Conscious motivations: motivations of which people are aware (ex. I wanted to earn my PhD)
Unconscious motivations: motivations of which people are not aware (ex. I wanted to show my family I am worthy of praise)
What does the term “need for achievement” mean?
the unconscious motivation to solve worthwhile problems; people vary in this need and it is measured with special techniques like the Thematic Apperception Test
What determines whether a motivation is conscious or unconscious?
- When actions are easy, we are aware of our most general motivations (ex. screwing in a lightbulb -> to be helpful)
- When actions are difficult, we are aware of our more specific motivations (ex. having trouble screwing in a lightbulb -> get the threads aligned, get to the right height, approach from the right angle, etc.)
- People are usually aware of the general motivations behind their behaviour and only become aware of more specific motivations when the encounter problems
What is the difference between approach and avoidance motivation?
Approach motivation: the motivation to experience positive outcomes
Avoidance motivation: the motivation to avoid experiencing negative outcomes; tends to be stronger than approach motivation
What is meant by the term “loss aversion”?
the tendency to care more about avoiding losses than about achieving equal-size gains; people expect the pain of a loss to outweigh the pleasure of a gain, so they typically take more risks to avoid the former than to achieve the latter
Which is stronger: approach motivation or avoidance motivation?
Generally, avoidance motivation; however, it depends on the person (some people are happier when rewarded and others are more anxious when threatened)
What is the difference between promotion focus and prevention focus?
Promotion focus: the tendency to think in terms of achieving gains
Prevention focus: the tendency to think in terms of avoiding losses
What is terror management theory?
a theory about how people respond to knowledge of their own mortality; suggests that one way people cope is by developing a cultural worldview
• Cultural worldview: a shared set of beliefs about what is good and right and true; allows people to see themselves as more than mortal animals, because they inhabit a world of meaning in which they can achieve symbolic immortality (ex. by having children, leaving a legacy, etc.) or literal immortality (ex. going to heaven)
What is the mortality salience hypothesis?
people who are reminded of their mortality should be especially motivated to hang on to their cultural worldviews
Which emotion is associated with the greatest increase in body temperature? The greatest decrease?
Happiness; depression
What are the two components of the process of appraisal?
- Primary appraisal: challenge (potential for gain/growth) or threat (may lead to harm, loss, etc.)?
- Secondary appraisal: assessed if a threat is detected (effective options = low threat, ineffective/no options = high threat)
What are some examples of the “fight” action tendency?
- Yelling, mean words
- Hitting, kicking, biting
- Blaming, deflecting
- Demanding, controlling
- Defiance, noncompliance
- Moving towards what feels threatening
What are some examples of the “flight” action tendency?
- Running away
- Not paying attention
- Fidgeting, hyperactivity
- Procrastination
- Moving away from what feels threatening
What are some examples of the “freeze” action tendency?
- Shutting down, mind blank
- Isolation, hiding
- Verbally unresponsive
- Difficulty completing tasks
- Daydreaming
- Unable to move, feeling “stuck”
- Numbness, apathy, helplessness
What is cognitive attribution?
The process of identifying where your feelings are coming from
What is the least effective way of managing emotion, and why?
Suppression:
- increases cognitive load (extra stress in your mind)
- will eventually come out worse than it would have originally
What are the 3 aspects of the cognitive triangle?
Thoughts, feelings, behaviours
What is the window of tolerance?
a model which helps to understand the variable nature of an individual’s capacity and ability to cope and function; when an individual is within their window of tolerance, they are able to experience and tolerate thoughts and emotions, as well as cope with the challenges and opportunities of everyday life without much difficulty; they are more likely and able to take in information, think logically, make informed decisions, and respond in developmentally appropriate ways
What are some factors that impact the size of one’s window of tolerance?
- number of demands and stressors we have
- life events (change, transition)
- adverse life experiences
- relationships and interactions with other people
- our stage of development
- physical health
- individual factors (diet, activity level, sleep)
What is Cognitive Load Theory, and what are its 3 components?
The weight your mind is carrying when performing a task; consists of…
- Intrinsic load: the complexity of the information you are trying to digest or relay
- Germane load: your current state of thinking and learning; linking new information with the information you currently have
- Extraneous load: unnecessary and distracting information
How does Cognitive Load Theory relate to lying?
Lying is a very complex task, so your intrinsic load is increased (you have to make sure you’re masking, come up with details of an event you didn’t experience, etc.); your extraneous load is also increased (high anxiety, fear, embarrassment, pressure, etc.)
This is why it takes liars longer to come up with a story
Why are polygraphs unreliable?
Multiple different feelings can be experienced from the same set of physiological responses; you can get physiological responses consistent with lying when you are actually feeling excited, nervous, etc.
All polygraphs tell us is whether you are experiencing a physiological response; it is unable to attribute that response to anything
What are the categories on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, from highest to lowest?
- Self actualization
- Esteem
- Belongingness and love
- Safety and security
- Physiological
What are some of the effects of weight discrimination on the people who experience it?
- increased likelihood of gaining weight
- weight bias internalization (coming to agree with the negative stereotypes of one’s body)
- depression
- anxiety
- low self-esteem
- development of eating disorders
What are the 4 quadrants on the approach/avoidance graph?
High approach + low avoidance: success-oriented
Low approach + low avoidance: failure-acceptors
Low approach + high avoidance: failure-avoiders
High approach + high avoidance: overstrivers
What is the procrastination equation, and what does it tell us about increasing motivation?
Motivation = expectancy x value / impulsiveness x delay
In order to increase motivation, you can either increase expectancy/value or decrease impulsivenss/delay
Define the 4 aspects of the procrastination equation
Value: how much you enjoy doing the task, and how much you will enjoy the reward from completing it
Expectancy: how much you expect to succeed at doing the task, and how much you expect to acquire the reward
Impulsiveness: how likely you are to be distracted given your environment or your history (personality, energy level, etc.), and how good you are at staying focused
Delay: the further away the task’s reward/completion, the lower the motivation
What is the cycle of learned helplessness?
the notion that the more you feel like you can’t do something, the less motivated you are to do it, leading to lower success, further reinforcing the fact that you can’t achieve it; over time you internalize that you are inherently bad at this thing and will never be able to succeed
