Week 2: Early Development Flashcards
Does stress make you fat?
A: Yes
B: No
C: Sort of
C: Sort of
Stress can make it harder to lose weight. Stress causes the body to hold on to resources like fat because the body thinks it needs to stay alive. Stress slows down metabolism, which focuses energy on survival rather than burning calories. The relationship between obesity, health problems, and stress is bidirectional (goes both ways), with stress contributing in a cyclical way (repeats in a cycle or circular pattern over time).
Belly fat in particular can be harder to get rid of due to stress. Stress causes increased levels of cortisol, a stress hormone. High cortisol levels are associated with belly fat accumulation. Cushing’s disease, a condition involving high cortisol levels, has been linked to belly fat.
An article by Dr. Tomiyama showed that the relationship between obesity, eating habits, and health problems is more complex than typically thought. The traditional view is that eating habits cause obesity, which leads to health problems. However, Dr. Tomiyama’s article showed that the relationship is bidirectional, with stress also contributing in a cyclical way as a third variable.
What is the inverted “u” of stress?
A: Stress always follows a linear pattern, where any amount of stress, no matter how small, is detrimental to health. The concept of an inverted “u” is oversimplified, and stress is uniformly negative without any potential benefits.
B: The inverted “u” model of stress is a myth, and stress levels don’t have an optimal range. In reality, higher stress is always better for performance, and individuals can thrive indefinitely under intense stress without facing any negative consequences. The idea of an inverted “u” is an outdated and inaccurate representation of stress.
C: The way stress works is in an inverted fashion, where a small amount of stress is good as it motivates us, but too much stress leads to breakdown. She noted there is an optimal level of stress in the middle of the inverted U shape, and that not all stresses are positive - it can go all the way to the negative end of too much stress.
C: The way stress works is in an inverted fashion, where a small amount of stress is good as it motivates us, but too much stress leads to breakdown. She noted there is an optimal level of stress in the middle of the inverted U shape, and that not all stresses are positive - it can go all the way to the negative end of too much stress.
> There’s an image on slide 11 that might be helpful
Very low amounts of stress (underload) = low performance
Medium amounts of stress (optimum) = high performance
Very high amounts of stress (overload) = low performance
Define stress:
A: Threats, or anticipation of threats, to an organism’s homeostasis. The body’s anticipation of threats to an organism’s homeostasis. Refers to the readiness for and anticipation of threats to an organism’s normal physiological functioning or state of balance.
B: Stress is solely defined by external events and challenges that have no impact on an organism’s homeostasis. It doesn’t involve any anticipation of threats, and the body’s physiological functioning remains unaffected.
C: Stress is only a psychological phenomenon and has no connection to an organism’s homeostasis. It is a subjective response to situations and does not involve any physiological readiness for potential threats.
A: Threats, or anticipation of threats, to an organism’s homeostasis. The body’s anticipation of threats to an organism’s homeostasis. Refers to the readiness for and anticipation of threats to an organism’s normal physiological functioning or state of balance.
Define homeostasis:
A: The body’s state of balance and normal physiological functioning when at rest. Homeostasis is established by the balance and interaction of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems working together.
B: Homeostasis refers only to extreme physiological conditions and doesn’t involve the everyday balance of the body. It is only relevant during critical situations, not during regular physiological functioning.
C: Homeostasis is solely determined by the sympathetic nervous system, and the parasympathetic system plays no role in maintaining the body’s balance. The interaction between these systems is irrelevant to the concept of homeostasis.
A: The body’s state of balance and normal physiological functioning when at rest. Homeostasis is established by the balance and interaction of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems working together.
Define allostasis:
A: Allostasis refers only to short-term, acute responses to stress and does not involve cumulative effects over time. It is limited to immediate adaptations without considering long-term wear and tear on the body.
B: Any stimuli that cause alterations in homeostasis for adaptation to the environment. An altered or shifted set point of homeostasis resulting from the cumulative effects of allostatic responses to stressors that are chronic, excessive, or insufficiently regulated. Allostatic load indicates the wear and tear on the body from being in a state of either fight or flight preparedness over long periods of time due to stress.
C: Allostasis is unrelated to the concept of stress and adaptation. It is a term used exclusively in the context of physical exercise and does not encompass broader physiological responses to environmental stressors.
B: Any stimuli that cause alterations in homeostasis for adaptation to the environment. An altered or shifted set point of homeostasis resulting from the cumulative effects of allostatic responses to stressors that are chronic, excessive, or insufficiently regulated. Allostatic load indicates the wear and tear on the body from being in a state of either fight or flight preparedness over long periods of time due to stress.
What is allostatic load?
A: Allostatic load indicates an altered, new set point of
homeostasis, resulting from cumulative effects of allostatic responses that are chronic, excessive, or poorly regulated. A new “normal.” We all carry allostatic load, which indicates an altered or shifted set point of homeostasis resulting from the cumulative effects of allostatic responses to stressors that are chronic, excessive, or insufficiently regulated. A high allostatic load means the body’s set point of homeostasis and baseline functioning has been pushed up by repeated or prolonged stress responses over time.
B: Allostatic load is a temporary adjustment to stressors and does not result in an altered, new set point of homeostasis. It only reflects short-term changes without impacting the overall baseline functioning of the body.
C: Allostatic load is a concept limited to extreme situations of chronic stress and does not apply to everyday stressors. It does not represent an altered or shifted set point of homeostasis but rather a temporary deviation that resolves once the stressor is removed.
A: Allostatic load indicates an altered, new set point of
homeostasis, resulting from cumulative effects of allostatic responses that are chronic, excessive, or poorly regulated. A new “normal.” We all carry allostatic load, which indicates an altered or shifted set point of homeostasis resulting from the cumulative effects of allostatic responses to stressors that are chronic, excessive, or insufficiently regulated. A high allostatic load means the body’s set point of homeostasis and baseline functioning has been pushed up by repeated or prolonged stress responses over time.
What does gene-driven brain development refer to?
A: Gene-driven brain development only involves the later stages of brain development, neglecting the crucial early phases where genes provide the basic blueprint. This view suggests that genes play a minor role in determining brain architecture.
B: Gene-driven brain development solely relies on external environmental factors, and genetic influences have minimal impact on the early stages of brain development. This perspective overlooks the essential role of genes in shaping the foundational structure of the brain.
C: Gene-driven brain development refers to the early stages where genes provide the basic blueprint for brain architecture. This includes neurogenesis in utero to form neurons, cell migration to predetermined locations, cell differentiation, axon myelination, and initial synaptogenesis. The genes determine the basic properties of neurons and initial connections, while experiences will further customize brain structure and function.
C: Gene-driven brain development refers to the early stages where genes provide the basic blueprint for brain architecture. This includes neurogenesis in utero to form neurons, cell migration to predetermined locations, cell differentiation, axon myelination, and initial synaptogenesis. The genes determine the basic properties of neurons and initial connections, while experiences will further customize brain structure and function.
What happens during neurogenesis?
A: Neurogenesis primarily occurs in the later stages of development, well beyond the initial 3-4 weeks gestation. This perspective undermines the significance of early neurogenesis in shaping the foundation of the central nervous system.
B: Neurogenesis is a continuous process throughout the entire lifespan, with neurons forming at various stages, including adulthood. This view neglects the early, critical period of neurogenesis during the initial weeks of gestation, overlooking its foundational role in central nervous system development.
C: Neurogenesis occurs very early in development, around 3-4 weeks gestation. During neurogenesis, neurons are formed as the neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord. This stage is crucial because the neural tube forms the foundation of the entire central nervous system. Once the neural tube has closed neurons begin to form.
C: Neurogenesis occurs very early in development, around 3-4 weeks gestation. During neurogenesis, neurons are formed as the neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord. This stage is crucial because the neural tube forms the foundation of the entire central nervous system. Once the neural tube has closed neurons begin to form.
What is the importance of the neural tube?
A: The neural tube is a relatively minor structure in early development, and its formation doesn’t significantly impact the central nervous system. Issues like spina bifida are unrelated to neural tube development.
B: The neural tube needs to form perfectly during early development because it is the foundation of the entire central nervous system. Neural tube defects can cause issues like spina bifida. Prenatal vitamins are important for pregnant people because folic acid/folate helps ensure proper formation of the neural tube.
C: Prenatal vitamins, especially those containing folic acid/folate, are unnecessary during pregnancy, as the formation of the neural tube has little relevance to the proper development of the central nervous system.
B: The neural tube needs to form perfectly during early development because it is the foundation of the entire central nervous system. Neural tube defects can cause issues like spina bifida. Prenatal vitamins are important for pregnant people because folic acid/folate helps ensure proper formation of the neural tube.
What happens during cell migration?
A: After neurogenesis, there is a stage of cell migration where immature neurons act like stem cells and migrate to their predetermined destinations to create the basic structure of the brain. The neurons are programmed to migrate to specific locations, almost like traveling on “highways” in the brain. This takes place between 4-24 weeks gestation.
B: Cell migration is a relatively insignificant process in brain development, and neurons do not play a crucial role in forming the basic structure of the brain during this stage.
C: The process of cell migration primarily occurs after 24 weeks gestation, and the movement of neurons to predetermined destinations is a random process rather than following specific pathways in the brain.
A: After neurogenesis, there is a stage of cell migration where immature neurons act like stem cells and migrate to their predetermined destinations to create the basic structure of the brain. The neurons are programmed to migrate to specific locations, almost like traveling on “highways” in the brain. This takes place between 4-24 weeks gestation.
What happens during cell differentiation?
A: Cell differentiation is a process that occurs before cell migration, and it has no significant impact on the specialization of neurons into specific types with distinct functions.
B: After cell migration occurs, the next stage is cell differentiation. During this stage, neurons take on their specific responsibilities and duties by differentiating into particular types of neurons, such as motor neurons, sensory neurons, etc., and will develop axons and dendrites. This determines what each neuron will be and do.
C: Neurons do not differentiate during brain development; instead, they maintain a general and undifferentiated state throughout the entire process, leading to a lack of specificity in their functions.
B: After cell migration occurs, the next stage is cell differentiation. During this stage, neurons take on their specific responsibilities and duties by differentiating into particular types of neurons, such as motor neurons, sensory neurons, etc., and will develop axons and dendrites. This determines what each neuron will be and do.
MORE ABOUT AXONS, DENDRITES:
> You may want to look at the image on slide 9
> Axons are the long projections from neurons that transmit electrical signals. Their length determines how far signals can travel.
> Dendrites are short projections that receive signals from other neurons.
What happens during synaptogenesis?
A: Synaptogenesis is a reversible process, and synapses can disintegrate during this stage, leading to a lack of communication between neurons.
B: Synaptogenesis is the stage where neurons begin connecting with each other to form synapses. This allows neurons to communicate and form networks. It occurs after axons and dendrites have formed. The formation of synapses is what ultimately determines the unique structure and connections within the brain.
C: Synaptogenesis is not crucial for neural development, and the brain can function normally without the formation of synapses between neurons.
B: Synaptogenesis is the stage where neurons begin connecting with each other to form synapses. This allows neurons to communicate and form networks. It occurs after axons and dendrites have formed. The formation of synapses is what ultimately determines the unique structure and connections within the brain.
MORE ABOUT SYNAPSES:
> Synapses are the connections between neurons, where axon terminals connect to the dendrites of other neurons. This allows neurons to communicate via chemicals and electrical signals. The formation of synapses, called synaptogenesis, allows neurons to form networks and connect with each other.
> Synaptogenesis is referred to as Experience-Expectant synapse production.
Do we overproduce or underproduce neurons and synapses?
A: Overproduce
B: Underproduce
A: Overproduce
This is referred to as Experience-Expectant synapse production. During early brain development, there is an overproduction of both neurons and synapses. For instance, we have more synapses at 4 than we do at 40. The brain produces more neurons and synaptic connections than it will ultimately need. This is done so the brain is ready to adapt to any potential environmental inputs or experiences. It sets the brain up to be able to handle the full range of human experiences.
What is the purpose of Experience-Expectant synapse production?
A: Experience-Expectant synapse production is a process that occurs only in certain individuals and does not contribute to the overall development of the brain.
B: The brain does not produce extra neurons in anticipation of typical experiences, and synapse production is solely determined by genetic factors.
C: The experience-expectant process involves two main brain regions, Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area. They are intact before you even encounter language. They are ready for any language you will experience. Think of this as the foundation-laying stage of development. The brain produces extra neurons and connections in anticipation of typical human experiences, like sight, sound, touch, etc. This allows the brain to be prepared for the full range of sensory and cognitive experiences it expects to encounter (universal human experiences).
C: The experience-expectant process involves two main brain regions, Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area. They are intact before you even encounter language. They are ready for any language you will experience. Think of this as the foundation-laying stage of development. The brain produces extra neurons and connections in anticipation of typical human experiences, like sight, sound, touch, etc. This allows the brain to be prepared for the full range of sensory and cognitive experiences it expects to encounter (universal human experiences).
What happens during synaptic pruning?
A: Synaptic pruning is considered a lifelong process that extends beyond the initial overproduction of synapses. Throughout an individual’s life, the brain undergoes ongoing refinement, with synapses continually adapting based on changing experiences and environmental stimuli. This dynamic process ensures the brain remains adaptable and responsive to evolving circumstances.
B: While synaptic pruning involves the elimination of unnecessary synapses, the process is primarily driven by genetic factors rather than environmental inputs. Unlike Experience-Dependent synapse production, which tailors synapses to unique life experiences, synaptic pruning is thought to be predetermined by genetic programming, with limited responsiveness to external stimuli.
C: After the initial overproduction of synapses during early development, there is a process called synaptic pruning where unnecessary synapses are eliminated. Pruning refines brain connections based on the individual’s actual experiences and environmental inputs (unique human experiences). Synapses that are not being used are pruned away through apoptosis to customize the brain to the person’s unique life experiences and optimize brain function. This is referred to as Experience-Dependent synapse production.
C: After the initial overproduction of synapses during early development, there is a process called synaptic pruning where unnecessary synapses are eliminated. Pruning refines brain connections based on the individual’s actual experiences and environmental inputs (unique human experiences). Synapses that are not being used are pruned away through apoptosis to customize the brain to the person’s unique life experiences and optimize brain function. This is referred to as Experience-Dependent synapse production.
MORE FACTS:
> Without synaptic pruning the world would be too loud, busy, and overwhelming
> This helps the brain function more efficiently
> The things we don’t need anymore (it’s different for each person) are pruned away
> Keeping too many synapses without proper pruning could result in a state of hyperconnectivity, which has been observed in some cases of autism. This hyperconnectivity may be related to individuals feeling overwhelmed by sensory information processing in their environment.
> Pruning away too many synapses could disrupt communication between neural networks and result in impaired cognitive functions. This excessive loss of connections makes it difficult to access memories and disrupt certain communication pathways in the brain, similar to what is typically observed in Alzheimer’s disease.
What plays a key role in determining which synapses are pruned and which connections remain?
A: Synaptic pruning refines brain connections based on an individual’s actual early life experiences and environmental inputs. The synapses that are strengthened and retained are those corresponding to the stimuli the brain is exposed to during sensitive periods of development, like sights, sounds, and languages spoken. Synapses that are not actively used are pruned away. So early life experiences play a key role in determining which synapses are pruned and which connections remain.
B: The determinants of synaptic pruning are primarily driven by intrinsic genetic factors rather than external stimuli. While early life experiences may have some influence, the process is thought to be largely predetermined, with the genetic code playing a more substantial role in shaping which synapses are pruned and which connections persist.
C: Synaptic pruning is considered an autonomous process guided solely by biological mechanisms. Unlike Experience-Dependent synapse production, which is responsive to unique life experiences, synaptic pruning is perceived as a genetically orchestrated phenomenon, minimizing the impact of external factors in determining the fate of neural connections.
A: Synaptic pruning refines brain connections based on an individual’s actual early life experiences and environmental inputs. The synapses that are strengthened and retained are those corresponding to the stimuli the brain is exposed to during sensitive periods of development, like sights, sounds, and languages spoken. Synapses that are not actively used are pruned away. So early life experiences play a key role in determining which synapses are pruned and which connections remain.
What is the purpose of Experience-Dependent synapse production?
A: Experience-Dependent synapse production is a fixed and predetermined process unaffected by individual experiences. This synaptic production model operates independently of external stimuli or learning encounters, suggesting that the brain’s synaptic connections remain static and unaltered throughout an individual’s lifetime.
B: Experience-dependent synapse production refers to the process by which synapses are strengthened or weakened over time based on experiences. Repeated activation of synapses due to experiences or learning strengthens the connections, while inactive synapses are pruned away. This allows the brain to continually modify and optimize its synaptic connections throughout life based on a person’s unique experiences.
C: The purpose of Experience-Dependent synapse production is solely to support basic motor functions and reflexes. It is a process primarily concerned with maintaining fundamental neural connections required for essential bodily functions, with little regard for the impact of unique or complex life experiences on synaptic modifications.
B: Experience-dependent synapse production refers to the process by which synapses are strengthened or weakened over time based on experiences. Repeated activation of synapses due to experiences or learning strengthens the connections, while inactive synapses are pruned away. This allows the brain to continually modify and optimize its synaptic connections throughout life based on a person’s unique experiences.
Can pruned synapses grow back?
A: Yes
B: No
C: Sort of
C: Sort of
New connections can form in the brain through learning. When you learn something new and want to remember it, repeating it over and over strengthens the connection between neurons through repeated firing. This implies that while pruned synapses themselves may not regrow, new connections can be formed in the brain throughout life through learning and experience.
Do the processes of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning happen uniformly across the brain?
A: Yes
B: No
B: No
Brain development occurs in a sequential, region-specific manner, with different areas developing and maturing at different sensitive periods. Certain skills like vision, hearing, and language emerge before others. Synaptogenesis and pruning are not uniform but rather occur at different times in different brain regions as their functions develop.
MORE FACTS:
> Different areas of the brain have distinct sensitive periods when they are most responsive to environmental inputs.
> The visual and auditory cortices undergo synaptogenesis early after birth to process the sights and sounds being experienced.
> Language-related areas may have sensitive periods a bit later to acquire language skills.
> Higher cognitive functions develop even later.
> This implies synapses are forming and being pruned according to each region’s developmental timeline and role.
> Synapse formation and elimination is tailored to the specific functions and inputs each brain area is specialized to process.
> The processes are not synchronized across the entire brain but rather occur in a sequential, specialized manner based on the maturation of different neurological systems and skills.
What is a sensitive period?
A: Sensitive periods are times during development when the brain is particularly responsive to environmental inputs. It’s a “window of opportunity” for the brain to shape itself based on experiences. If the appropriate inputs are received during a sensitive period, it can help construct the brain to work effectively in that environment. But if inputs are lacking, pruning may remove relevant connections. Sensitive periods suggest the ability to learn may be achieved later, just with more difficulty than during the sensitive window. Sensitive periods tend to occur earlier in life, such as during childhood. The brain’s ability to change in response to experiences is highest early in life and declines with age.
B: Sensitive periods are rigid and unalterable developmental stages where the brain’s responsiveness to environmental inputs is fixed. Once a sensitive period concludes, the brain loses its ability to adapt to new experiences, hindering further learning or modifications in neural connections. This view suggests that learning is strictly confined to specific early stages, and later attempts at adaptation are futile.
C: Sensitive periods are limited to a single, brief timeframe during development, and missing this window entirely results in permanent cognitive deficits. According to this perspective, the brain lacks any capacity for plasticity or adaptability outside these narrowly defined sensitive periods. The concept disregards the notion that learning can occur throughout an individual’s life.
A: Sensitive periods are times during development when the brain is particularly responsive to environmental inputs. It’s a “window of opportunity” for the brain to shape itself based on experiences. If the appropriate inputs are received during a sensitive period, it can help construct the brain to work effectively in that environment. But if inputs are lacking, pruning may remove relevant connections. Sensitive periods suggest the ability to learn may be achieved later, just with more difficulty than during the sensitive window. Sensitive periods tend to occur earlier in life, such as during childhood. The brain’s ability to change in response to experiences is highest early in life and declines with age.
Examples:
- Vision - The visual cortex undergoes synaptogenesis early after birth to process visual inputs.
- Hearing - The auditory cortex also experiences synaptogenesis in infancy to learn sounds.
- Language acquisition - The language areas may have sensitive periods a bit later to learn language skills.
So in summary, some of the key examples she mentioned were the early sensitive periods for vision and hearing development shortly after birth, as well as language learning sensitive periods in early childhood.
NOTE: If this is on an exam a good example for discussing a sensitive period is language learning. It’s not that you can’t learn a new language later, it will just be much harder.
What is a critical period?
A: Critical periods refer to times during development when the brain is particularly responsive to environmental inputs. However, unlike sensitive periods, if the appropriate inputs are not received during a critical period, it can result in irreversible changes to brain structure and function. Critical periods indicate that if exposure to certain environmental stimuli does not occur at the right time, there may be nothing that can be done to acquire that skill or function later on. Critical periods occur early in development, such as during infancy and childhood. Critical periods represent times when skills must be acquired or they will never be acquired later on, even with more effort or exposure. This implies critical periods generally occur at younger ages before neural circuits have fully formed, versus sensitive periods which can occur over a wider age range.
B: Critical periods suggest that the brain’s responsiveness to environmental inputs is unlimited and can be harnessed at any point in an individual’s life. According to this view, there are numerous opportunities for acquiring specific skills or functions, and missing a critical period does not preclude the possibility of acquiring those abilities later on. This perspective undermines the concept that certain developmental milestones are time-sensitive and irreversible.
C: Critical periods are flexible and can be extended or prolonged to accommodate delayed exposure to environmental stimuli. This perspective implies that, even if a crucial developmental stage is missed, individuals can catch up later in life without irreversible consequences. The concept of critical periods is viewed as more lenient, allowing for continual learning and adaptation beyond traditional developmental timeframes.
A: Critical periods refer to times during development when the brain is particularly responsive to environmental inputs. However, unlike sensitive periods, if the appropriate inputs are not received during a critical period, it can result in irreversible changes to brain structure and function. Critical periods indicate that if exposure to certain environmental stimuli does not occur at the right time, there may be nothing that can be done to acquire that skill or function later on. Critical periods occur early in development, such as during infancy and childhood. Critical periods represent times when skills must be acquired or they will never be acquired later on, even with more effort or exposure. This implies critical periods generally occur at younger ages before neural circuits have fully formed, versus sensitive periods which can occur over a wider age range.
Example:
- Visual development in cats
- Cats have a critical period early in life for visual cortex development.
- In an experiment, cats had one eye closed for 2.5 months during this critical period.
- When the eye was reopened, the visual cortex neurons responsible for input from that eye had been eliminated, as there was no visual stimulation during the critical period.
- Even when the eye was kept open for a long time afterwards, the cat remained blind in that eye, as the visual cortex had already determined it would not process input from that eye.
- This showed that if the appropriate stimuli is not received during a critical period, that function will never develop, even with later exposure or effort.
- When done on an adult cat instead of a kitten, there was no effect - the visual cortex was not affected and the cat could still see out of the eye that had been closed, even after an extended period.
- This is because critical periods only apply during early development, and the visual cortex of an adult cat has already established its connections, so depriving the eye of input later did not disrupt its development.
NOTE: if this is on an exam the cat example given above is a great talking point to demonstrate what a critical period is
So what is the main difference between sensitive periods and critical periods?
A: Sensitive periods and critical periods are essentially synonymous, both describing specific timeframes during development when the brain is responsive to environmental inputs. The terms can be used interchangeably, and the distinction between them is minimal. This perspective suggests that the differences highlighted between sensitive and critical periods are mere semantics, and the brain’s plasticity remains relatively consistent throughout development.
B: Sensitive periods are characterized by a rigid and fixed timeframe, during which certain skills or functions must be acquired. Critical periods, on the other hand, are more flexible and allow for extended learning opportunities, even if exposure to environmental stimuli is delayed. This perspective blurs the distinction between the two concepts, suggesting that the terms can be used interchangeably without significant differences.
C: Sensitive periods suggest a “window of opportunity” when things are most easily learned, but skills/functions may still potentially be achieved later in development, just with more difficulty. Critical periods indicate that if the appropriate environmental inputs are not received during that period, it can result in irreversible changes to brain structure/function. Skills/functions may not be able to be acquired at all if missed during a critical period.
C: Sensitive periods suggest a “window of opportunity” when things are most easily learned, but skills/functions may still potentially be achieved later in development, just with more difficulty. Critical periods indicate that if the appropriate environmental inputs are not received during that period, it can result in irreversible changes to brain structure/function. Skills/functions may not be able to be acquired at all if missed during a critical period.
Does the brain develop in a reverse C formation?
A: Yes
B: No
A: Yes
Brain development occurs in “reverse species formation.” The most basic and simple skills emerge first during development, followed later by more complex skills. An example would be the autonomic nervous system and abilities like breathing developing before higher-level skills like vision, hearing, speech, and executive function, which emerge over time in order of increasing sophistication.
Is language development experience-expectant, experience-dependent, or both?
A: Experience-expectant
B: Experience-dependent
C: Both
C: Both
Experience-Expectant Processes:
These are biological processes that are expected to occur in typical environments. The human brain is biologically prepared to acquire language and has certain expectations about the linguistic input it will receive. For example, infants are born with the ability to distinguish the phonetic contrasts of all languages, but as they are exposed to a specific language, they refine these abilities based on the input they receive.
NOTE: If this is on an exam, just remember that there are regions in the brain (for language learning that’s the Broca’s and Wernicke’s area) that everyone is born with. They are intact before you even encounter language. They are ready for any language you will experience. Think of it as laying the foundation for you
Experience-Dependent stage of learning. It’s a preparatory stage, open to anything.
Experience-Dependent Processes:
These processes are influenced by specific experiences that an individual has. As a person interacts with their environment, especially through social interactions and exposure to language input, their language skills are shaped and refined. The richness and variety of linguistic experiences contribute to the development of vocabulary, grammar, and communicative skills.
NOTE: If this is on an exam just remember that this is the stage where you are becoming who you are. You are becoming unique. So, if you’re raised in Spain you’ll learn Spanish however it’s spoken in your particular region with whatever accent is dominant in your region and it will prune out everything else.
In summary, while there are biological foundations for language development (experience-expectant), the specific linguistic skills and knowledge that individuals acquire are heavily influenced by their unique experiences (experience-dependent). The interplay between these two processes is crucial for the comprehensive development of language abilities.
Discuss language development and sensitive periods:
A: Language development and sensitive periods are irrelevant concepts, and there is no evidence to support the idea that the brain is more responsive to language acquisition during specific timeframes. This perspective denies the existence of sensitive periods in language development, suggesting that language skills can be acquired equally well at any stage of life.
B: Language development represents a sensitive period, where the brain develops specific regions for the native language or languages someone is exposed to during early life. This helps prune the brain to be specialized for those languages through an experience-dependent process. Acquiring language skills is easiest during these sensitive periods in childhood, compared to trying to learn additional languages later in life.
C: Sensitive periods in language development are limited to early childhood, and once this period passes, the brain loses all capacity for language acquisition. This perspective exaggerates the strictness of sensitive periods, implying that learning or improving language skills in adulthood is impossible and that the brain’s plasticity is severely limited outside the early years.
B: Language development represents a sensitive period, where the brain develops specific regions for the native language or languages someone is exposed to during early life. This helps prune the brain to be specialized for those languages through an experience-dependent process. Acquiring language skills is easiest during these sensitive periods in childhood, compared to trying to learn additional languages later in life.
Discuss the case of Genie:
A: The case of Genie proves that sensitive periods have no significant impact on language development. Despite her lack of exposure to language during early childhood, Genie easily acquired complex grammar and syntax later in life. This perspective denies the critical role of sensitive periods in language acquisition, suggesting that individuals can fully develop language skills regardless of when they are introduced to language.
B: Genie was a child who was deprived of language input for the first 12 years of her life. When Genie was discovered, researchers were interested to see if she could acquire language. Genie was able to learn vocabulary words easily, but struggled greatly with acquiring grammar and syntax. This showed that while some basic language skills may be learned later, the critical period for full language development had passed for Genie since she missed out on language input early in life during sensitive periods.
C: Genie’s case highlights that sensitive periods in language development are a myth. She was able to grasp grammar and syntax with ease, demonstrating that the brain’s plasticity allows for complete language acquisition even after early childhood. This perspective dismisses the idea that sensitive periods play a crucial role in shaping language abilities and argues that language skills can be acquired at any age.
B: Genie was a child who was deprived of language input for the first 12 years of her life. When Genie was discovered, researchers were interested to see if she could acquire language. Genie was able to learn vocabulary words easily, but struggled greatly with acquiring grammar and syntax. This showed that while some basic language skills may be learned later, the critical period for full language development had passed for Genie since she missed out on language input early in life during sensitive periods.
True or false: All systems are constrained by sensitive/critical periods:
A: True
B: False
B: False
Not all systems are constrained by sensitive or critical periods. Not everything falls into a sensitive or critical period timeframe. For example, learning and memory. Our brains are always learning and memory does not have the same constraints - we can continue acquiring new information through learning and memory even later in life, outside of typical sensitive periods.
Why not just keep sensitive/critical periods open forever?
A: Keeping sensitive/critical periods open forever would lead to unlimited brain plasticity, enabling individuals to acquire new skills effortlessly at any age. This perspective argues that the brain’s ability to constantly adapt to new experiences would enhance cognitive functioning and prevent limitations associated with defined periods.
B: The idea of closing sensitive/critical periods is outdated and restrictive. Allowing these periods to remain open indefinitely would promote continuous learning and adaptation throughout life. This perspective emphasizes the potential for ongoing neuroplasticity to optimize cognitive function and dismisses the notion that stability is necessary for efficient brain functioning.
C: Keeping sensitive/critical periods open forever would be chaotic for the body and brain. Our bodies and brains crave stability, and it would be too metabolically costly for the brain to constantly be rewiring and adapting in response to new experiences indefinitely. Having defined sensitive/critical periods allows the brain to establish stable neural circuits that can be reliably used and conserved over time.
C: Keeping sensitive/critical periods open forever would be chaotic for the body and brain. Our bodies and brains crave stability, and it would be too metabolically costly for the brain to constantly be rewiring and adapting in response to new experiences indefinitely. Having defined sensitive/critical periods allows the brain to establish stable neural circuits that can be reliably used and conserved over time.
What do sensitive/critical periods have to do with early-life stress and adversity?
A: The discussion of sensitive periods and critical periods provides important context for understanding the effects of early-life stress and adversity. These developmental windows represent times when the brain is especially sensitive to environmental influences. Brain architecture is developed in a bottom-up sequential manner, and is especially sensitive to environments and experiences in the early years. Experiencing stress or deprivation during sensitive/critical periods can disrupt typical brain development and pruning processes. This helps explain why early-life stress and adversity are particularly detrimental and can have lasting impacts on things like cognitive, social, and emotional functioning that develop during these important developmental windows.
B: Sensitive/critical periods are irrelevant to early-life stress and adversity as the brain remains equally adaptable throughout a person’s lifespan. This perspective argues that stress at any age can have similar effects on brain development, dismissing the notion that there are specific developmental windows of heightened sensitivity.
C: Early-life stress and adversity are only impactful during sensitive/critical periods if they occur at extremely high levels. This perspective suggests that moderate levels of stress during early development do not significantly influence brain architecture, and the effects are only pronounced in cases of severe adversity.
A: The discussion of sensitive periods and critical periods provides important context for understanding the effects of early-life stress and adversity. These developmental windows represent times when the brain is especially sensitive to environmental influences. Brain architecture is developed in a bottom-up sequential manner, and is especially sensitive to environments and experiences in the early years. Experiencing stress or deprivation during sensitive/critical periods can disrupt typical brain development and pruning processes. This helps explain why early-life stress and adversity are particularly detrimental and can have lasting impacts on things like cognitive, social, and emotional functioning that develop during these important developmental windows.
How do neurons respond to stress?
A: In slides comparing neurons in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and amygdala with and without cortisol present. The neurons in the PFC had fewer dendrites when exposed to cortisol, while amygdala neurons increased in activity and sensitivity to emotional stimuli under stress. This demonstrated that stress causes adaptive, not detrimental, changes in different brain regions depending on their function and role in the stress response. This is important because the amygdala activates the HPA axis and stress response. It becomes more sensitive to emotional stimuli under stress, and
the prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-level cognitive functions. It has fewer dendrites and connections when exposed to cortisol during stress. This implies the amygdala primes the body for a fight or flight response by increasing vigilance for threats, while the prefrontal cortex may have a reduced capacity for complex decision-making when stress levels are high.
B: Neurons respond to stress uniformly by increasing dendritic complexity in both the prefrontal cortex and amygdala. This perspective argues that stress enhances cognitive functions and emotional responses equally across different brain regions, disregarding the observed differences in dendritic changes.
C: Stress uniformly impairs brain function by reducing neuronal activity in both the prefrontal cortex and amygdala. This perspective suggests that stress has a detrimental impact on both higher-level cognitive functions and emotional processing, neglecting the adaptive changes observed in these brain regions.
A: In slides comparing neurons in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and amygdala with and without cortisol present. The neurons in the PFC had fewer dendrites when exposed to cortisol, while amygdala neurons increased in activity and sensitivity to emotional stimuli under stress. This demonstrated that stress causes adaptive, not detrimental, changes in different brain regions depending on their function and role in the stress response. This is important because the amygdala activates the HPA axis and stress response. It becomes more sensitive to emotional stimuli under stress, and
the prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-level cognitive functions. It has fewer dendrites and connections when exposed to cortisol during stress. This implies the amygdala primes the body for a fight or flight response by increasing vigilance for threats, while the prefrontal cortex may have a reduced capacity for complex decision-making when stress levels are high.
Discuss early life adversity and critical periods:
A: Early life adversity has no impact during critical periods, and the brain remains resilient regardless of environmental stress. This perspective suggests that neural circuits and pruning processes are not influenced by adversity during sensitive/critical periods, undermining the observed impacts on cognitive, social, and emotional functions.
B: Experiencing adversity during sensitive/critical periods has only temporary effects on brain development. This perspective argues that any disruptions caused by early-life stress are quickly overcome, and the brain can easily readjust, downplaying the long-term detrimental impacts on functions such as cognition, social skills, and emotion regulation.
C: Experiencing adversity or stress during sensitive/critical periods can disrupt typical brain development processes that occur during these windows. If deprivation or threats are present when the brain is especially sensitive to environmental influences, it can alter neural circuits and pruning in a way that has lasting impacts on functions developing at that time, such as cognition, social skills, and emotion regulation. This helps explain why early-life adversity and stress can have such detrimental long-term effects.
C: Experiencing adversity or stress during sensitive/critical periods can disrupt typical brain development processes that occur during these windows. If deprivation or threats are present when the brain is especially sensitive to environmental influences, it can alter neural circuits and pruning in a way that has lasting impacts on functions developing at that time, such as cognition, social skills, and emotion regulation. This helps explain why early-life adversity and stress can have such detrimental long-term effects.
