Week 2/3 (Chapters 4 and 5) Infant, Toddler, Early Childhood Development Flashcards
1
Q
Schemes
A
According to Piaget, mental structures that organize information and regulate behavior.
2
Q
Assimilation
A
According to Piaget, taking in information that is compatible with what one already knows.
3
Q
Accomodation
A
According to Piaget, changing existing knowledge based on new knowledge.
4
Q
Equilibration
A
According to Piaget, the process by which children recognize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium when disequilibrium occurs.
5
Q
Sensorimotor period
A
First of Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development, which lasts from birth to approximately 2 years.
6
Q
Object permanence
A
Understanding, acquired in infancy, that objects exist independently of oneself.
7
Q
Egocentrism
A
Difficulty in seeing the world from another’s point of view; typical of children in the preoperational period.
8
Q
Animism
A
Phenomenon of crediting inanimate objects with life and lifelike properties such as feelings.
9
Q
Centration
A
According to Piaget, narrowly focused type of thought characteristic of preoperational children.
10
Q
Core knowledge hypothesis
A
Infants are born with rudimentary knowledge of the world, which is elaborated based one experiences.
11
Q
Teleological explanations
A
Children’s belief that living things, including their parts and their actions, exist for a purpose.
12
Q
Essentialism
A
Children’s belief that all living things have an essence that can’t be seen but gives a living thing its identity.
13
Q
The term ____ refers to modification of schemes based on experience.
A
accomodation
14
Q
According to Piaget, ______ are psychological structures that organize experience.
A
schemes
15
Q
Piaget believed that infant’s understanding of objects could be summarized as ______.
A
“out of sight, out of mind”
16
Q
By 18 months, most infants talk and gesture, which shows that they have the capacity ________.
A
to use symbols
17
Q
Preschoolers are often ________, meaning that they are unable to take another person’s viewpoint.
A
egocentric
18
Q
Preoperational children sometimes attribute thoughts and feelings to inanimate objects; this is called ______.
A
animism
19
Q
One criticism of Piaget’s theory is that it underestimates cognitive competence in _________.
A
infants and children
20
Q
Most 4 year olds know that living things move, _________, become ill, and heal when injured.
A
grow
21
Q
Mental hardware
A
Mental and neural structures that are built in and allow the mind to operate.
22
Q
Mental software
A
Mental “programs” that are the basis for performing particular tasks.
23
Q
Attention
A
processes that determine which information will be processed further by an individual.
24
Q
Orienting response
A
An individual views a strong or unfamiliar stimulus, and changes in heart rate and brain wave activity occur.
25
Habituation
Act of becoming unresponsive to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly.
26
Classical conditioning
A form of learning that involves pairing a neutral stimulus and a response originally produced by another stimulus.
27
Operant conditioning
Form of learning that emphasizes the consequences of reward and punishment.
28
Autobiographical memory
Memories of the significant events and experiences of one's own life.
29
One to one principle
Counting principle that states that there must be one and only one number name for each object counted.
30
Stable order principle
Counting principle that states that number names must always be counted in the same order.
31
Cardinality principle
Counting principle that states that the last number name denotes the number of objects being counted.
32
One way to improve preschool children's attention is to have them engage in ______ play.
pretend
33
Four month old Tanya has forgotten that kicking moves a mobile. To remind her of the link between kicking and the mobile's movement, we could ________.
let her view a moving mobile
34
Preschoolers may be particularly suggestible because they are less skilled at _______.
monitoring the source of their memories
35
When a child who is counting a set of objects repeats the last number, usually with emphasis, this indicates the child understands the _________ principle of counting.
cardinality
36
Intersubjectivity
Mutual, shared understanding among participants in an activity.
37
Guided participation
Children's involvement in structured activities with others who are more skilled, typically producing cognitive growth.
38
Zone of proximal development
Different between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone.
39
Scaffolding
A style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learner's needs.
40
Private speech
A child's comments that are not intended for others but are designed to help regulate the child's own behavior.
41
The _______ is the difference between the level of performance that youngsters can achieve with assistance and the level they can achieve alone.
zone of proximal development
42
The term _____ refers to a style in which teachers adjust their assistance to match a child's needs.
scaffolding
43
According to Vygotsky, _______ is an intermediate step between speech from others and inner speech.
private speech
44
Infant-directed speech
Speech that adults use with infants that is slow and has exaggerated changes in pitch and volume; it helps children master language.
45
Cooing
Early vowel like sounds that babies produce.
46
Babbling
Speechlike sounds that consist of vowel consonant combinations; common at about 6 months.
47
Fast mapping
A child's connections between words and referents that are made so quickly that he or she cannot consider all possible meanings of the word.
48
Underextension
When children define words more narrowly than adults do.
49
Overextension
When children define words more broadly than adults do.
50
Phonological memory
Ability to remember speech sounds briefly; an important skill in acquiring vocabulary.
51
Referential style
Language-learning style of children whose vocabularies are dominated by names of objects, persons, or actions.
52
Expressive style
Language-learning style of children whose vocabularies include many social phrases that are used like one word.
53
Telegraphic speech
Speech used by young children that contains only the words necessary to convey a message.
54
Grammatical morphemes
Words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical.
55
Overregularization
Grammatical usage that results from applying rules to words that are exceptions to the rule.
56
Infant's mastery of language sounds is fostered by ________, in which adults speak slowly and exaggerate changes in pitch and loudness.
infant-directed speech
57
Older infants' babbling often includes _____, a pattern of rising and falling pitch that distinguishes statements from questions.
intonation
58
Youngsters with a(n) ________ style have early vocabularies dominated by words that are names and use language primarily as an intellectual tool.
referential
59
In ______, a young child's meaning of a word is broader than an adult's meaning.
overextension
60
Answers to the question "how do children acquire grammar?" include linguistic, cognitive, and ________ influences.
social interaction
61
When talking to listeners who lack critical information, pre-schoolers __________.
provide more elaborate messages
62
Hope
According to Erikson, openness to new experience tempered by wariness that occurs when trust and mistrust are in balance.
63
Will
According to Erikson, a young child's understanding that he or she can act on the world intentionally; this occurs when autonomy, shame, and doubt are in balance.
64
Purpose
According to Erikson, balance between individual initiative and the willingness to cooperate with others.
65
Evolutionary psychology
Theoretical view that many human behaviors represent successful adaptations to the environment.
66
Attachment
Enduring socioemotional relationship between infants and their caregivers.
67
Secure attachment
Relationship in which infants have come to trust and depend on their mothers.
68
Avoidant attachment
Relationship in which infants turn away from their mothers when they are reunited following a brief separation.
69
Resistant attachment
Relationship in which, after a brief separation, infants want to be held but are difficult to console.
70
Disorganized (disoriented) attachment
Relationship in which infants don't seem to understand what's happening when they are separated and later reunited from their mothers.
71
Internal working model
Infant's understanding of how responsive and dependable the mother is; thought to influence close relationships throughout the child's life.
72
_________ proposed that maturational and social factors come together to pose eight unique challenges for psychological growth during the lifespan.
Erik Erikson
73
Infants must balance trust and mistrust to achieve ________, an openness to new experience that is coupled with awareness of possible danger.
hope
74
By approximately _______ months of age, most infants have identified a special individual--usually but not always the mother--as an attachment figure.
6 or 7
75
Joan, a 12 month old, was separated from her mother for about 15 minutes. When they were reunited, Joan would not let her mother pick her up. When her mother approached, Joan would look the other way or toddle to another part of the room. This behavior suggests that Joan has a(n) __________ attachment relationship.
avoidant insecure
76
The single most important factor in fostering a secure attachment relationship is ______.
responding consistently and appropriately
77
Children who have a ________ attachment relationship with their parents tend to be more competent socially and are less prone to externalizing disorders.
secure
78
An insecure attachment relationship is likely when an infant receives poor quality child care and ______.
insensitive, unresponsive mothering.
79
Basic emotions
Emotino experienced by humankind that consist of three elements: a subjective feeling, a physiological change, and an overt behavior.
80
Social smiles
Smile that infants produce when they see a human face.
81
Stranger wariness
First distinct signs of fear that emerge around 6 months of age when infants become wary in the presence of unfamiliar adults.
82
Social referencing
Behavior in which infants is unfamiliar or ambiguous environments look at an adult for cues to help them interpret the situation.
83
Parallel play
When children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing.
84
Simple social play
Play that begins at about 15 to 18 months; toddlers engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other.
85
Cooperative play
Play that is organized around a them; with each child taking on a different role; begins at about 2 years of age.
86
Enabling actions
Individuals' actions and remarks that tend to support others and sustain the interaction.
87
Constricting actions
Interaction in which one partner tries to emerge as the victor by threatening or contradicting the other.
88
Prosocial behavior
Any behavior that benefits another person.
89
Altruism
Prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior.
90
Empathy
Act of experiencing another person's feelings.
91
Toddlers who are 12 to 15 months old often engage in ______ play, in which they play separately but look at one another and sometimes communicate verbally.
parallel
92
Children with imaginary companions often are more sociable, have more real friends, and have more advanced ______.
theory of mind
93
When girls interact, conflicts are typically resolved through ________; boys more often resort to intimidation.
discussion and compromise
94
________ is the ability to understand and feel another person's emotions.
Empathy
95
Contextual influences on prosocial behavior include feelings of responsibility, feelings of competence, ________, and the costs associated with behaving prosocially.
mood
96
Parents can foster altruism in their youngsters by behaving altruistically themselves, using reasoning to discipline their children, and ________.
providing children with opportunities to practice being altruistic
97
Social role
Set of cultural guidelines about how one should behave, especially with other people.
98
Gender stereotypes
Beliefs and images about males and females that are not necessarily true.
99
Relational aggression
Aggression used to hurt others by undermining their relationship.
100
Gender identity
Sense of oneself as male or female.
101
Gender-schema theory
Theory that states that children want to learn more about an activity only after first deciding whether it is masculine or feminine.
102
__________ are beliefs and images about males and females that may or may not be true.
Gender stereotypes
103
Research on intellectual functioning and social behavior has revealed sex differences in verbal ability, _______, memory, social influence, aggression, emotional sensitivity and effortful control.
spatial ability
104
________ may be particularly influential in teaching gender roles because they more often treat sons and daughters differently.
Fathers
105
According to Martin's theory, children focus on gender-typical activities after they ________.
understand gender
106
Children studied in the Family Lifestyles Project, whose parents were members of the counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, had traditional gender-related views towards friends and __________.
preferred activities.
