Week 2.

Question 1

Types of clinical information needs that can be answered using research ?

Answer 1

The clinical information needed maybe related to
-Local info like background
These cannot be answered by research.

General information like:
- aetiology or frequency
- prognosis
- diagnosis
-treatment
-Patient concerns and experiences.
These can be answered by research.

Question 2

Just in case information

Answer 2

Also called PUSH information
Information that is out there in the form of journals, newsletters, textbooks, social media, chats between professionals.

This is targeted for professionals, when information should reach them.
This can be done by readingthe abstract, see if it is of interest and then read the full thing and store it for later.

Best to gather such information from reliable good abstracting journals. (Like advertisements are published journals)s

Question 3

Just in time information

Answer 3

This is information that potential customers look for. They don’t wait for information to be pushed to them. These are information that health professionals look for.

Question 4

Different study types

Answer 4

Cohort
Case - control
Surveys
Cross - sectional
Randomised Cast Trials.
Qualitative
Case - series

Question 5

Hierarchy of evidence?

Answer 5

There is no hierarchy of study as such to gather evidence in general.

But there is hierarchy of evidence for each type of questions.

Hierarchies of evidence helps us in deciding what study provides the best evidence and therefore what to look for first.

Question 6

Best study to find information on risk factors

Answer 6

Cohort (retrospective)
CAS - control study

Question 7

Prevalence of a condition - best study type to find information

Answer 7

Cross - sectional survey

Question 8

Study for diagnosis questions

Answer 8

Cross - sectional study
Cohort - to test diagnostic alternatives

Question 9

Best evidence for any type of information

Answer 9

Systemic review or meta analysis

Question 10

Best study for intervention questions

Answer 10

RCTs

Question 11

Best study for prognostic questions

Answer 11

Prospective cohort study

Question 12

Bias?

Answer 12

Bias is a systemic error in the way that participants are selected for a study, outcomes are measured or data are analysed. Each of these can lead to inaccurate results.

One of the main steps on internally validity checking.

(Anything that affects the study from being true)

Question 13

Types of bias

Answer 13

1. Selection bias / sampling bias - the sample will not represent the true population
2. Allocation bias - bias in how intervention and selection is allocated
3. Maturation bias - changes that might have occurred naturally over time.
4. Attrition bias - participants may withdraw or loose participants from one group more than the other.
5. Measurement bias in experimental studies - difference in the way things are measured between the groups.
6. Placebo effect
7. Hawthorne effect - participants may experience changes due to the attention they are receive in during the research process.

Question 14

Confounding

Answer 14

Confounding factors are those that cause not error in the measurement but error in the interpretation of the result.

Question 15

How to reduce confounding?

Answer 15

• randomisation

Question 16

Probability or P

Answer 16

The probability of the difference between the two groups is by chance alone and not due to other factors or confounders.

Question 17

P value

Answer 17

<0.05

Question 18

Statistical sugnificance

Answer 18

A study is said to be statistically significant when the p values is < 0.05. That is the chance that the difference between the groups compared is due to chance alone . The probability of any other reason is < 5 % .

Question 19

Confidence interval

Answer 19

Gives a range between which the value fo rate true population will fall.

It helps determine the impact of the evidence in the population.

Question 20

How does sample size affect CI

Answer 20

The CI narrows as the sample size increases.

Question 21

Effect of variance on CI

Answer 21

Increase in variance widens the range of CI.

Question 22

Qualitative research

Answer 22

Focuses on the social world and generation of theories.

Question 23

Quantitative research

Answer 23

Science of numbers. Objective and structures. It measures things. Avoids bias. Theory testing

Question 24

Descriptive studies

Answer 24

Concerned with person, place and time to answer questions like who, what, where and when.
May focus on the cause of something.
Change in something over time.
Eg: Case report. Mortality rate, Morbidity rate, Disease registers

Question 25

Analytic studies

Answer 25

Main tool used for identifying the cause of the diasease and evaluating interventions.

0planned comparison between people with or without a disease, with or without exposure.
It focuses on WHY

Question 26

Observational study

Answer 26

Observe why something is occurring. No intervention.

Question 27

Experimental study

Answer 27

In the study you control / intervene and observe what happens.

Question 28

Case report

Answer 28

Description of an individual patient

Question 29

Case series

Answer 29

Report that combines multiple cases.

Question 30

Cross sectional study is what type of study?

Answer 30

Analytical or descriptive

Question 31

What type of question does cross sectional study answer?

Answer 31

Prevalence

Question 32

Time frame fro cross sectional study

Answer 32

Single point in time

Question 33

Results of cross sectional study

Answer 33

Exposure and outcome at a particular time.

Question 34

Cohort study ?

Answer 34

Study a group of people over time. And compare them with another group.
Study the outcome.

Question 35

Type of cohort study

Answer 35

Prospective
Retrospective

Question 36

Case - control study

Answer 36

Look back to see which risk factors they have been exposed to.

Question 37

Difference between cohort and case control study

Answer 37

Cohort - always start with exposure status

case control - start with outcome and then look at exposure.

Question 38

RCTs

Answer 38

Experimental versus control group to learn the outcome of interest.