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Sem 1: Parasite and pathogen ecology > Week 11 > Flashcards

Week 11 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 2 transitions steps for multicellularity?

A

Independantly replicating units come together to form a new, more complex individual that can then only replicate as a whole (mutual dependance)

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2
Q

How many times did multicellularity evolve?

A

Evolved independantly more than 25 times

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3
Q

What can cause multicellularity in single celled organisms?

A

Cells form groups when predators are around

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4
Q

How is the anti-predator response seen in algae?

A

Exposure to predator poo and preadators cause algae to always group together, across different alage and different predators

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5
Q

How can vertical transmission led to dependance?

A

Strict vertical transmission = allignment of fitness interests = dependance

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6
Q

How can symbiosis led to dependance for hosts?

A

Symbionts provide essential nutrients = hosts evolve dependance

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7
Q

How can you meausure ‘dependance’?

A

The % reduction of host fitness.
Hosts can’t survive without symbionts vs hosts survive well without symbionts

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8
Q

What experiment did scientists do to learning between symbionts and hosts?

A

They removed 106 symbionts which use bacterial symbionts, using hosts from diverse groups using MCMCglmm comparative analysis. This was done across different metrics, transmission mode, symbiont function and symbiont genome size

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9
Q

What is MCMCglmm?

A

A package for fitting Generalised Linear Mixed Models using Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques

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10
Q

What does vertical transmission of symbionts mean for host dependance?

A

Vertical transmission = higher host dependance

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11
Q

Are hosts more dependant on defensive or nutritional symbionts?

A

They are more dependant on nutritional symbionts

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12
Q

In vertical transmission are larger or smaller genomes of symbionts?

A

Hosts are more dependant on symbionts with small genomes

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13
Q

In horizontal transmission are larger or smaller genomes of symbionts?

A

Slight increase in genome size causes increase in dependance

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14
Q

How is vertical transmission shown to have impacted genomes?

A

Vertically transmitted symbionts have smaller genomes

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15
Q

What is twisted symbionts?

A

Co-operation, tinged with conflict and manipulation

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16
Q

What are examples of twisted symbionts?

A

Ants and acacia trees
Cleaner wrasse health spa

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17
Q

What is an example in aphids with a mutualistic microbe indirectly harm hosts?

A

Aphid primary endosymbiont, though essential, release airborne molecules that attact hoverflies (predator)

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18
Q

How does our gut microbiome accidently harm us?

A

They make the polio virus more effective

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19
Q

How does mice gut microbiome accidently harm them?

A

MMTV (Mouse Mammary Tumour Virus) causes breat cancer in mice, using host bacteria like fake ID, displayig them to the host system to gain safe passage into cut

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20
Q

What is dysbiosis?

A

The break-down of symbionts

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21
Q

How is human activity causing dysbiosis in corals?

A

More CO2 = warmer oceans
Warmer oceans cause corals to expel algae then get sick causing diseases like white pox (coral become bleached as a result of dysbiosis)

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22
Q

What is the anthropocene?

A

Humanities influence is causing climate change and drastic changes in species richness

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23
Q

How has Prof Daniel Janzen referred to humans with co-evolutions?

A

The most co-evolutionary animal of them all

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24
Q

How can coevolution effect environmental change?

A

It may increase or decrease the effect of environmental change depending on the type of interaction between the different species
Antagonistic = reduced effects
Mutualistic = increased effects + higher extinction

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25
Q

How are humans manipulating biodiversity for our needs?

A

Antibiotics, selective breeding and causing RAPID changes

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26
Q

What happened to bananas in the 60s?

A

Gros Michel Banana clone was wiped out by 2 fungi meaning by 1960 no new land
New cavendish varient clone, new, worse fungus

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27
Q

How is climate change impacting species coevolution?

A

Species ranges are moving latitide due to global warming (higher altitudes, higher latitudes and greater ocean depths). This leads to loss of coevolutionary hotspots as species are jumping

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28
Q

How is climate change impacting human coevolution with reindeer?

A

Warming is greening the artic, which means more shrubs and less mosses and lichens. This means less winter food for reindeer making reindeer herding is more difficult

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29
Q

How are human coevolutionairy relationships causing issues for humans?

A

Increased emerging infectious diseases eg
HIV-1 (100% fatality rate, 30 million deaths found in chimps and gorrilas)

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30
Q

How can harnessing coevolution help people diet?

A

Fecal microbiota transplantation (stool from healthy donor is transferred to a patient with recurrent C. difficile infection, the healthy microbiota is restored in the patients colon)

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31
Q

How can humans use defensive symbionts?

A

Use Wolbachia to control dengue fever by using their ability to disrupt population gender demographics to control mosquito populations. When Wolbachia got to 80% frequency population of mosquito collapsed

32
Q

What is bioremediation?

A

The use of bacteria, for heavy metal bioredmediation when it is a public good

33
Q

How is bioremediation currently being used?

A

Siderophores in bacteria scaveneg free iron in the envrionment

34
Q

How prevelant is heavy metal contamination?

A

China- 20 million ha of farmland contaminated by heavy metals
Europe- ~2.5 million contaminated sites - only 15% successfully remediated

35
Q

What is the correlation between heavy metal content and siderophore production?

A

Positive correlation between heavy metal content siderophore production (only correlations are problematic)

36
Q

What other benefits to defensive symbionts?

A

Predictive powers- response to applied disease control extinction risks
Darwinian evolution- evolve less harmful parasites
Novel therapeutics- phage therapy

37
Q

What is phage therapy?

A

The use of phages to help protect against bacterial infections especially antibiotic reistant strains

38
Q

What is classical parasitism?

A

Lifestyle in which an individual lives in or on an organism of another species (its host) and benefits by deriving nutrients at the other’s expense

39
Q

What is behavioural parasitism?

A

Lifestyle in which an individual exploits the behaviour of another individual (of the same or different species) to gain fitness benefirs at the expense of the host

40
Q

What are the 4 types of behavioural parasitism?

A

Kleptoparasitism
Brood parasitism
Social parasitism
Sexual parasitism

41
Q

What is kleptoparasitism?

A

Is a feeding strategy where one animal deliberately steals food from another, therefore avoiding the costs of hunting or foraging

42
Q

What are examples of Kelptoparasitism?

A

Rove beetles and parasitic jaegers which steal food from their host prey items

43
Q

What is brood parasitism?

A

Brood parasitism is an evolutionary strategy that relieves the parsitic parents from the investment of rearing young or building nests for the young by getting the host to raise their young for them

44
Q

What are examples of brood parasitism?

A

Cuckoos and Synodontis multipunctatus (catfish) (parasite to mouthbrooding fish, hatches and eats young of other species)

45
Q

What is social parasitism?

A

An evolutionary strategy where a parsite exploits the social behaviour of a host species causing the host to rear the parasites offspring

46
Q

What are examples of social parasitism?

A

Slave-raiding ant- Polygerus mexicanus and its host, the silver field ant Formica argentea
Phengaris alcon butterfly with mymrica host

47
Q

What is sexual parasitism?

A

A reproductive strategy where males attach to the female and derive nutrients whilst providing no resources other than sperm

48
Q

What is an example of sexual parasitism?

A

The relationship between male and female angerfish

49
Q

How many birds are obligate brood parasites?

A

Approx 1% of birds

50
Q

What are the costs of brood parasitism on hosts?

A

Reduces resources avaliable to hosts offspring
Leads to direct mortaility of host eggs and chicks
Parasites use strategies to kill host chicks and increase resources for their own chicks

51
Q

How do Cuckoos use mimicry to infiltrate the hosts nest?

A

Cuckoos mimic predators
Genetically distinct cuckoos populations specialise on different host to keep pace with host defence evolution

52
Q

How do Cuckoo finches use mimicry to infiltrate the hosts nest?

A

Cuckoo finch has polymorphic eggs to match polymorphism in their host
It mimics a common bird that co-occurs with the host to escape detection

53
Q

How do Pin-tailed whydah use mimicry to infiltrate the hosts nest?

A

Pin-tailed whydah mimic the mouth patterning of their waxbill host

54
Q

How do Horsefield hawk cuckoo use mimicry to infiltrate the hosts nest?

A

It increasesd feeding by mimicking an extra gape on its wing

55
Q

How can specialism better increase host fitness compared to generalism?

A

Specialist screaming cowbird mimics its host more than generalist brown cowbird

56
Q

What is the mafia hypothesis?

A

When he host rejects a parasite eggs parasitic adults retaliates bydestroy the hosts other eggs as a punishment

57
Q

What was the behaviour of cowbird impacting nest predation?

A

Cowbird prescence causes an increase in nest destruction
Cowbirds are most likely to destroy nest if eggs were rejected
Cowbirds may destroy nests for additional reasons

58
Q

What was the behaviour of cowbird impacting Warbler offspring number?

A

Warblers rear more offspring in abscnece of cowbirds
Warblers rear more offspring when cowbird eggs were not rejected

59
Q

What are the trade offs for the Warblers?

A

Parasitism is costly to the host
Rejecting parasite eggs is costly

60
Q

What are the trade offs for the cowbird?

A

Not being vigilant is potentially costly for parasite
Vigilance itself is also potentially costly

61
Q

What can change a parasites host behaviour?

A

‘Mafia’ behaviour is highly plastic and responsive to host behaviour

62
Q

What are the 3 major types of social parasitism?

A

Temporary social parasitism
Inquiline parasitism
Dulosis (practice of slave ants of stealing pupae)

63
Q

What is Wasmannian mimicry of rove beetles?

A

Rove beetles mimic:
Host biochemistry
Size and morphology
Behaviour

64
Q

What is Batesian mimicry?

A

When a group of organisms gain protection from predation by resembling or mimicking the defensive signalling of an unpalatable or defended species (Hoverfly having striping of bee and wasp)

65
Q

What is Mullerian mimicry?

A

Where two or more species with effective defenses share a similar appearance or signalling by reducing the cost of associative learning

66
Q

How do ants communicate?

A

Through the use of cuticular hydrocarbons

67
Q

How can ant parasite of ants exploit the communication between ants?

A

Colony integration achieved through chemical insignificance rather than mimicry eg paraite Acromyrmex insinuator with the host Acromyrmex echinatior

68
Q

What are Pheidole?

A

A large genus of mymricine ants with social and parasitic behaviour and have undergone several adaptive radiations

69
Q

What is a key feature of relationship between Pheidole species of Malagasy?

A

90 Pheidole species on Malagasy are part of a single endemic radiation. 13 species which form a monophyletic clade

70
Q

What are the key features of parasitic Pheidole?

A

Largets and smallest parasites match their hosts in size
They match their hosts for overall size and individual body parts
They match their head hair number of their hosts

71
Q

Whats another important way for ants to commicate outside of CHCs?

A

Ants use sound to commnicate, which allows them to instantaneously and pinpoint specific locations. Allowing them to signal species identity, caste and social status

72
Q

How do parasitic Maculinea rebeli (Mountain Alcon Blue) exploit ant sound commication?

A

They make the destinctive sounds that are made by the queen ants of Myrmica schencki (host ant)

73
Q

How did the co-opting of ant sounds potentially evolve in butterflies?

A

Lots of Lycanid caterpillas and other butterflies produce sounds to repel predators- so it seems plausible that these anti-predator defences became co-opted to become a key feature evolution towards mimicry

74
Q

What are the 3 routes of the evolution of social parasitism?

A

Territorial aggression –> dulosis
Adoption of young queens, polygyny and budding –> Temporary parasitism
Plesiobiosis and xenobiosis
All three routes lead to permanent inquilinism

75
Q

What is plesiobiosis?

A

Living in close proximity but engage in little on no direct communication

76
Q

What is xenobiosis?

A

‘guest ants’ lives within, or at the periphery of, the host nest nut rears its own brood in seperate chambers

77
Q

What is Emery’s rule?

A

Social parasites among insects (eg kleptoparasites) tend to be parasites of species or genera to which they are closely related

Sem 1: Parasite and pathogen ecology (11 decks)

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