Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Survey Research Methods and Statistics > week 10 - observational methods > Flashcards

week 10 - observational methods Flashcards

1
Q

What are observational methods?

A
  • observing a relatively unconstrained segment of individuals’ freely chosen behaviour within a particular setting
    • no request for information
    • no intervention or manipulation of observed behaviours
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What is the use of the term “observational” in research methods?

A
  • can refer to the techniques of making observations
  • used as a general description, referring to all non-experimental studies where observation is the main procedure for data gathering in natural situations (observation is the overall design)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What is the distinction between technique and overall design?

A

distinction based on the centrality of “observation” in the research design

Technique:

  • measures the dependent variable
  • often used within traditional experimental designs in lab settings
  • may or may not be part of an experiment

Design:

  • relies primarily on observational records
  • study that is solely observational and does not include experimentation
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

How is observation used as a technique, and what is an example?

A
  • used in a lab setting (field experiments are also possible) in addition to other forms of data collection
  • i.e. Milgram’s obedience experiments
  • Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment (traditional experimental design in a lab setting)
  • Rabinowitz et al. (1993) study of store cashier behaviour (field experiment)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are the advantages of using observation as an overall design?

A
  • produces data on real behaviour rather than possibly distorted self-reports
  • can gather data on behaviour not open to experimentation (e.g., real playground aggression)
  • if conducted in field settings, can often gather data on unforced behaviour
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

What are the disadvantages of using observation as an overall design?

A
  • people’s behaviour can be affected by awareness of being observed
  • can be very time-consuming compared with the experiment or questionnaire study
  • it may not be possible to identify cause and effect
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is controlled observation?

A
  • Observation in a controlled setting, often a lab or observation room
    • artificial, potentially inhibiting atmosphere
    • limits external validity: how well are the results of the study able to apply to other settings?
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What is naturalistic observation?

A
  • observation of people without intervention in their own environment
    • access to genuine behaviour, high levels of external validity
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What is participant observation?

A
  • The observer acts in the observed group
  • qualitative approach to observation
  • researcher is an active participant
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is non-participant observation?

A
  • observation from a distance, no interference with the behaviour being observed
  • structured and quantitative approach to observation
  • researcher is completely uninvolved
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is disclosed vs undisclosed observation?

A
  • distinction based on whether or not the researcher has disclosed to participants that they are being observed for research purposes
  • information given can be partial, or can involve some amount of deception, in order to encourage more genuine behaviour
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are the ethical issues of undisclosed (covert) observation?

A
  • obtaining informed consent from participants before the start of the research
  • giving participants the option to opt-out of the study
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What are some advantages to undisclosed (covert) observations?

A
  • protecting the researchers from harm
  • allowing access to sites that otherwise would have not been possible to study
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What are Reactivity Effects?

A
  • tendency to alter behaviour in response to awareness of being observed
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What are the ways to eliminate reactivity effects?

A
  • the use of hidden cameras
    • introduces ethical problems
    • impossible when researcher wants to investigate behaviour in home settings
  • can reduce reactivity by becoming a predictable and familiar part of the environment
    • e.g. several visits to children in their schools without collecting any data
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What is structured (systematic) observation?

A
  • relies ideally on representative samples of behaviour
  • define behaviours before starting observation
  • observed behaviours are coded using these pre-established categories
  • typical in quantitative studies: a record of specific behaviours that focuses on frequency and/or timing
17
Q

What is unstructured observation?

A
  • recording takes place after the observation
  • no restrictions placed on what the observer will note
  • typical in qualitative studies: all aspects of the phenomenon that seem to be relevant are recorded
18
Q

What are the main features of structured (systematic) observation

A
  • defining behaviour categories to be recorded before commencing the main observational sessions
  • sampling of behaviour in a consistent manner
  • training of observers in the use of a coding system and to a good level of agreement before main data-gathering sessions
  • observing behaviour can be:
    • observed live: ratings or coding on the spot using a checklist or grid
    • observed using audio or video recordings: analyse/rate/code the behaviour after the events
  • devices are used discreetly (e.g. screens, one way mirrors)
19
Q

How do researchers define behaviour categories?

A

What kinds of behaviours do you think fit those categories? what are the criterion for each category?

  • The predefined categories should be
    • mutually exclusive: behaviour can be in only one category, no overlap
    • exhaustive: all behaviours must be covered by the codes
    • usually based on theory
  • create a coding scheme (framework, codebook) that all the observers/coders use. refer to it when deciding how to categorize a certain behaviour
20
Q

What are the 2 types of observational sampling?

A
  • event sampling
  • interval time sampling
21
Q

What is event sampling?

A

record previously defined behavioural pattern (e.g. child crying, picking up a toy, going to parent) every time it occurs

22
Q

What is interval sampling?

A
  • divide the observation period into intervals
  • time intervals usually equal in length
  • record presence or absence of a behaviour within or at the end of each interval
  • the intervals can be consecutive or separated
23
Q

How do researchers prepare for structured observation?

A
  • arrange for participants to be observed in specific settings for periods of time (sessions)
  • establish systematic procedures for transforming the observed behaviour (live or recorded) into data (quantitative)
  • train observers in the use of the coding system
  • prepare measurement procedures to apply to behavioural records (i.e., data)
24
Q

What type of observation does psychology tend towards?

A

structured + (quasi-) naturalistic observation

25
Q

How are observational techniques made to be reliable?

A
  • observers rating the behaviour need to use measures consistently
    • trained before the observational study until they begin to achieve consistency in their coding
    • agree in most cases how to categorise observations
    • e.g. when a push counts as ‘aggressive’
26
Q

What is inter-rater reliability?

A

a measure of reliability (consistency) among coders (observers)

  • checks how much coders ‘agree’ on how behaviour Is categorised
  • Cohen’s Kappa coefficient, K is widely used as a measure of inter-rater reliability. Takes the probability of chance agreements into consideration
27
Q

What is the equation for Cohen’s Kappa coefficient (K)?

A

K = (O - E) / (N - E)

  • N = number of observations
  • O = number of times observers agree
  • E = number of agreements by chance
28
Q

How do we interpret the results of Cohen’s Kappa?

A
  • < .40 (less than .40) = unacceptable
  • > .40 to < .60 (greater than .40, less than .60) = fair
  • > .60 to < .75 (greater than .60, less that .75) = good
  • > .75 (greater than .75) = excellent
29
Q

What is observer bias?

A

when observers’ characteristics influence what and how behaviour is coded

30
Q

What is the expectancy effect?

A

coders’ expectations (for instance, about the hypothesis) influence how they interpret behaviour

31
Q

What is information bias?

A

error resulting from systematic selective, incomplete, or inaccurate recall of observed behaviour

32
Q

What is the operationalisation of variables?

A

The process of turning abstract concepts into measurable variables

Survey Research Methods and Statistics (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions