Week 1 - Psychology as a Science Flashcards
By the end of this week you should be able to: 1. evaluate the scientific method and outline its role in developing psychological knowledge 2. Recognise experimental research methodology and be able to outline the basic research designs 3. Demonstrate competence in basic statistical techniques using manual analysis methods 4. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of theory and practice in qualitative research 5. Explain the relevance of ethical guidelines for psychologists
Who is Francine Shapiro?
Francine pioneered EMDR therapy or “Eye Movement and Desensitization Reprocessing” as a way to reduce anxiety
What is critical thinking?
Critical thinking involves assessing and evaluating claims based on well-supported evidence
What are five questions that can be asked in the critical thinking process?
- What am I being asked to believe or accept?
- What evidence is available to support this assertion?
- Are there any alternative ways of interpreting the evidence?
- What additional evidence would help evaluate the alternatives?
- What conclusions are most reasonable?
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a specific, testable proposition about a phenomenon
What are operational definitions?
An operational definition is a statement that defines the exact operations or methods used in research
What is a variable?
A variable is a factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured in research
What is data?
Data are numbers that represent research findings and provide the basis for research conclusions
What is confirmation bias?
An example of confirmation bias is when we want something or someone to be perfect to the point where we ignore their flaws.
This is one reason why people end up with faulty cars or in bad relationships. Double-blind methods are used by researchers to avoid confirmation bias when they draw conclusions from research evidence
What is statistical reliability?
Statistical reliability is the degree to which test results or other research evidence occurs repeatedly.
Are the results stable and consistent?
What is statistical validity?
Statistical validity is the degree to which test scores are interpreted correctly and used appropriately.
Do the results accurately reflect the topic being studied?
What is a theory?
A theory is an integrated set of propositions that can be used to account for, predict and even suggest ways of controlling certain phenomena.
They are tentative explanations and they must be tested
What is the law of parsimony?
The law of parsimony or the law of simplicity or KISS suggests that when several alternative conclusions exist it is usually the simplest one that is correct
As theories are tentative explanations, they must first be subjected to scientific examination based on _____ _____
Critical thinking
Scientists evaluate _____ and _____ in considering the value of the evidence they collect
Validity, reliability
The KISS principle is also known as the _____
Law of Parsimony
List the FOUR goals that psychologists strive to achieve
- DESCRIBE behaviour and mental processes
- PREDICT behaviour and mental processes
- Demonstrate some CONTROL over them
- EXPLAIN why and how behaviour and mental processes occur
What are observational methods?
Observational methods are procedures for systematically watching behaviour in order to summarise it for scientific analysis
What is naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observation is the process of watching without interfering as a phenomenon occurs in a natural environment
What are case studies?
Case studies are a research method involving the intensive examination of some psychological phenomenon in a particular individual, group, or situation
What is neuropsychology?
Neuropsychology is a sub field of psychology whose goal is to explore and understand the relationships among brain processes, human behaviour, and psychological functioning.
Brain activity, thinking, and behaviour are all inter-related
What are some limitations of case studies?
Case studies may only contain evidence that the researcher deemed important.
Case studies are unlikely to be representative of the general population
What is a survey?
A survey is a research method which involves giving people questionnaires or special interviews designed to obtain descriptions of their attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and intentions.
Surveys provide a wide-angle view of a large group
What are the limitations of surveys?
Surveys are limited by how clear the wording is or how representative the population used is of the population being studied.
People are also unlikely to admit to undesirable behaviours
What are correlational studies?
Correlational studies are a research method that examines relationships between variables in order to analyse trends in data, test predictions, evaluate theories, and suggest new hypotheses. It is important to remember that correlation is not the same as causation
What is an experiment?
An experiment is a situation in which the researcher manipulates one variable and then observes the effect of that manipulation on another variable, while holding all other variables constant
What is an experimental group?
An experimental group in an experiment is the group that receives the experimental treatment
What is a control group?
A control group in an experiment is the group that receives no treatment or provides some other baseline against which to compare the performance or response of the experimental group
What is an independent variable?
An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated by the researcher in the experiment
What is a dependent variable?
A dependent variable is a variable that is affected by the independent or manipulated variable
Independent or dependent variable? Children’s reading skill is measured after taking either a special reading class or standard reading class
Independent variable: reading class type Dependent variable: reading skill
Independent or dependent variable? University students’ memory from German vocabulary words is tested after a normal night’s sleep or a night of no sleep
Independent variable: Sleep amount
Dependent variable: memory of German vocabulary measured in a memory test
Independent or dependent variable? Experiment title: ‘The effect of a daily walking program on elderly people’s lung capacity
Independent variable: Exercise amount
Dependent variable: Lung capacity
Independent or dependent variable? People’s ability to avoid ‘accidents’ in a driving simulator is tested before, during, and after talking on a mobile phone
Independent variable: Phone usage
Dependent variable: Ability to avoid accidents
What is a confound?
A confound in an experiment is any factor that affects the dependent variable, along with or instead of the independent variable.
When confounds are present the experimenter cannot know whether the independent variable or the confound produced the results
What is a random variable?
A random variable is a type of confound where uncontrolled or uncontrollable factors affect the dependent variable, along with or instead of the independent variable.
An example of a random variable might be the time of year that the research took place or cultural differences of participants
What is randomising?
Randomising involves assigning participants in an experiment to various groups through a random process to ensure that random variables are evenly distributed among the group.
Randomising is supposed to reduce the effects of uncontrolled variables
What is the placebo effect?
The placebo effect is a treatment that contains no active ingredient but produces an effect because the person receiving it believes it will
What is experimenter bias?
Experimenter bias is a founfound that occurs when an experimenter unintentionally encourages participants to respond in a way that supports the experimenter’s hypothesis.
An example of this is “maze-bright” rats and “maze-dull” rats which affected the way the experimenters handled the rats and thus affected the outcomes of the study
What is a double-blind experimental design?
A double-blind experimental design involves the experimenter nor the participants being aware of who is in the experimental group and who is in the control group
What is sampling?
The process of selecting participants who are members of the population that the researcher wishes to study
What is representative sampling?
A process for selecting research participants whose characteristics fairly reflect the characteristics of the population from which they were drawn
What is random sampling?
Random sampling is the process of selecting a group of research participants from a population whose members all have an equal chance of being chosen
What is biased sampling?
Biased sampling is the process of selecting a group of research participants from a population whose members do not have an equal chance of being chosen
What is qualitative methodology?
Qualitative methodology is the use of in-depth methods such as conversations and interviews to understand and explore the how and why of human behaviour
What is behavioural genetics?
Behavioural genetics is the study of how genes and the environment work together to shape behaviour
What is epigenetics?
Epigenetics is the study of potentially inheritable changes in gene expression that are caused by environmental factors that do not alter a cell’s DNA.
Whilst the DNA is not changed the FUNCTION of it due to the environment is
The _____ method is most likely to use a double-blind design
Experimental
Research on a new treatment method is most likely to begin with _____
Case studies
Studying language by listening to people in public places is an example of _____ research
Naturalistic observation
What are descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics are numbers that summarise a set of research data
What are inferential statistics?
Inferential statistics are a set of mathematical procedures that help psychologists make inferences about what their research data mean
Describe the three types of descriptive statistics
- Measures of CENTRAL TENDENCY which describes the typical score in a data set
- Measures of VARIABILITY which describe the spread, or dispersion, among the scores in a set of data
- CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS which describe the relationships between variables
What is the mode?
The mode is a measure of central tendency that is the value or score that occurs most frequently in a data set
What is the median?
The median is a measure of central tendency that is the halfway point in a set of data: half the scores fall above the median and half fall below it
What is the mean?
The mean is a measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of the scores in a set of data
What is the range?
The range is a measure of variability that is the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set
What is standard deviation (SD)?
Standard deviation is a measure of variability that is the average difference between each score and the mean of the data set
What is correlation?
Correlation in research is the degree to which one variable is related to another
What is a correlation coefficient?
A correlation coefficient or r is a statistic that summarises the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
r = -1.00 (negative relationship) to r = +1.00 (positive relationship) - these are perfect relationships
r = +/- 0.01 is a very weak correlation - almost no relationship. This is not a perfect relationship
What is statistical significance?
Statistical significance refers to a correlation or difference between two groups that is larger than would be expected by chance
The measure of central tendency that is most affected by exremely high or extremely low scores is the _____
Mean
A set of data with a high standard deviation contains scores that are _____ variable than a set of data with a low tandard devation
More variable
True or false: correlation coefficients of +0.5 and -0.5 indicate relationships that are different strengths
False
What is the name of the code of conduct for psychologists in Australia?
APS Code of Conduct
What code is used for research with animals?
NHMRC Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes
Whatever the research topic, psychologists’ _____ is to investigate it in accordance with the highest ethical standards
Duty
If a proposed study is likely to create risks or discomfort for participants, an ethics committee will consider both the potential _____ and potential for _____
Benefits and harm
- You are watching an infomercial that claims that if you drink liquefied seaweed twice a day, you will lose 5 kilograms a month. As a wise consumer who knows the five critical thinking questions listed in this chapter, you would first say:
a) ‘I don’t know whether the person making the claim about the weight-loss effects of seaweed is a doctor.’
b) ‘The only evidence they present in support of their claim is one woman’s personal experience.’
c) ‘I’ll bet you also have to exercise to lose the 5 kilos.’
d) ‘They are asking me to believe that I can lose 5 kilos a month by drinking seaweed.’
d) ‘They are asking me to believe that I can lose 5 kilos a month by drinking seaweed.’
- Dr Lucas is interested in the effect of seeing colours on people’s moods. She has participants complete a mood survey in either a bright red room or a stark white one. A participant’s score on the mood survey is the researcher’s _____.
a) operational definition of mood
b) random variable
c) independent variable
d) descriptive statistic
c) independent variable
- Case studies are used to:
a) avoid a placebo effect
b) determine the effects of an independent variable
c) collect descriptive data
d) provide control in an experiment
c) collect descriptive data
- Before using survey results to support a hypothesis, we must be sure about which of the following?
a) The questions are properly worded.
b) The sample used is representative of the population of interest.
c The responses are not strongly biased by efforts to appear socially acceptable.
d All of the above.
d) all of the above
- In Dr Daneli’s experiment, Group A receives serotonin before taking a memory test, whereas Group B takes the same test without receiving serotonin.
In this experiment, performance on the memory test is the _____ variable.
a) dependent
b) independent
c) control
d) random
a) dependent variable
- Ari wants to know whether growing up in an abusive family causes children to become physically violent.
Which of the following research methods would create the greatest ethical problems in trying to study this question scientifically?
a) case studies
b) experiments
c) observations
d) surveys
b) Experiments
- Why do psychologists follow ethical guidelines?
a) Psychologists would not want the cost of participating in an experiment to be too high in comparison with the information to be gained.
b) The American Psychological Association has set standards for psychologists to follow when conducting research and treating clients.
c) Stress and pain could act as confounding variables in an experiment.
d) All of the above
b) The American Psychological Association has set standards for psychologists to follow when conducting research and treating clients
- Amy wanted to assess reactions to a new school rule requiring students to wear uniforms. She put the names of all 400 students enrolled in the school into a bag, drew out 25 names and sent them a questionnaire. In this study, Amy used:
a) biased sampling
b) double-blind assignment
c) random sampling
d) random assignment
c) random sampling
- Ben has discovered a correlation of -0.83 between the amount of time his male housemates spend working out in the gym and the number of dates they have during the semester.
Based on this information, Ben can correctly conclude that:
a) when the men work out more, they also have more dates
b) when the men work out more, they also have fewer dates
c) working out increases dating
d) working out decreases dating
b) when the men work out more, they also have fewer dates
- To assure that people participate voluntarily in psychological research, psychologists must:
a) pay them a reasonable participation fee, even if they drop out of the study later
b) give them the right to sue for damages in the event something goes wrong
c) tell them the true purpose of the study beforehand and let them ask questions
d) inform them about everything that might influence their decision to participate
d) inform them about everything that might influence their decision to participate
