Week 1

Question 1

What was the Ottoman Empire?

Answer 1

It was a single - dynasty political system which ruled over most of the Middle East and North Africa for over 500 years.
At its height, it exerted political control over most of the Muslim world and was on the brink of capturing a major capital of Western / Christian civilisation, which was Vienna

Question 2

What was the Siege of Constantinpole and what impact did it have?

Answer 2

It lasted from the 6th April - 29th May 1453; it was renamed Istanbul and the loss of it was a major loss for Christianity

Question 3

What were the Tanzimat Reforms?

Answer 3

These were a series of governmental changes that sought to centralise the rule and capture more tax revenues for the military defence of the Empire. It was a measure taken to prevent European powers from exploiting minority issues to intervene in Ottoman domestic affairs

Question 4

What territories did the Ottoman Empire lose to Britain and France following the Industrial Revolution and Post - Enlightenment

Answer 4

Eastern European provinces, Algeria, Egypt and Libya

Question 5

What was the Millet System?

Answer 5

It was devised from how to deal with different religious communities and it reformed ideas of how Muslims should treat non - Muslims. Each Millet could election their own leader, and they recognised peoples religious diversity; furthermore, the Shar’ia and Islamic Law has no jurisdiction over non - Muslims in the Ottoman Empire.

Question 6

Give an example of how the World War had an impact on identity and forms of belonging?

Answer 6

It offered more opportunities i.e. investment opportunities were given to Muslim businesses to reduce the advantages held by Europeans and their local Christian associates. Ultimately it asserted economic independence to Turks for more favourable investment opportunities

Question 7

When was the Sykes - Picot agreement signed and who was it between?

Answer 7

It was signed in 1916, and was signed between France and Britain

Question 8

Why can many of the conflicts in the Middle East be attributed to the imposition of artificial borders?

Answer 8

When Britain and France drew the borders, they paid no attention to the heterogenous nature of communities - therefore religious sects and groups were split - leading to extreme fighting for power and dominance

Question 9

Why was the Sykes - Picot agreement a controversial document of war?

Answer 9

It appeared to contravene portions of a pledge that Britain had give to the Sharif. This suggested that the British pledges to Husayn had been sacrificed to the requirements of allied harmony and Imperial self - interest

Question 10

Why was France so interested in Syria?

Answer 10

(1) Role of Religious Protector of Catholics throughout the Middle East: led to “erection of a division between them and the Arab Muslim and heterodox Muslim communities”
(2) Economic Interests: France as leading external investor in Ottoman Empire prior to the Great War - held a majority stake in Ottoman public debt and had established trade links in the Levant
(3) Strategic: Need to counter the rising tide of Arab nationalism which was sweeping across the Middle East - this prompted concerns over both the spread in the Maghreb and North Africa, and its possible us by the British to destabilise the French rule

Question 11

How can the Millet System be linked to Sectarian Problems?

Answer 11

Since the fall of the Empire, there have been long - standing efforts to preserve all of the religions.

Nevertheless, this has had detrimental effects - the religious groups that are still split in the region i.e. Arabs and Jews originate from the Millet System, but because groups have no been integrated with each other, it has allowed hostility to develop. This is primarily because instead of understanding beliefs, groups feel as though they need to compete for a dominating set of ideas and beliefs

Question 12

What three religions were established in the Middle East?

Answer 12

Judaism, Christianity and Islam

Question 13

Under the Ottoman Empire, how was loyalty and identity bound together?

Answer 13

Through a unified code of law, political system and taxation, religion, tribe, family, class, language and ethnic group

Question 14

What are Owen’s Typology of Middle East States?

Answer 14

(i) The Colonial State existed in the post - WWI period that existed in countries such as Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Iraq. According to Owen furthermore, it is distinguished by three features and these are; Central Administration; the policies of the colonial power; and colonialism as conduit for external influence
(ii) The immediate post - independent state, where national liberation movements struggled to consolidate a State system based on Western forms of government through socialism or other ideologies
(iii) The authoritarian state, where participatory democracy is absent, and one - party rule is supported by a strong military and internal security structure dominates

Question 15

What are Harik’s Typology of the Arab State?

Answer 15

1) The imam-chief system - authority is a sanctioned leader (Yemen, Oman, Hijaz)
2) Alliance system of chiefs and imams - ‘authority is invested in a tribal chief supported and awarded legitimate authority beyond the confines of his tribe by virtue of his identification and/or alliance to prominent religion leaders (Saudi Arabia)
3) Traditional secular system with authority invested in a dynasty free from religious attributes (Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and Lebanon)
4) Bureaucratic - military oligarchy type. Authority originates in urban-based garrison commanders, who in time develop an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. Monopoly of the means of coercion in the hands of an administrative caste is the major feature of the state type (Algeria, Egypt, Tunisia)
5) Colonial create system - states carved out of the now - defunct Ottoman Empire on the basis of foreign imperial interest in the absence of a credible local base of authority to erect new structures (Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Israel). urge

Question 16

How did the War serve to accelerate the transformation of the Social Order?

Answer 16

Woman began to enter the civil service and the mainstream professions. This was also emphasised by a transfer from religious to secular authority which improved sections of the new law, recognising the right of women to initiate divorce and restricting the grounds for the practice of polygamy

Question 17

Why was the Empire so vulnerable to attack?

Answer 17

Because of its extensive borders, it the Empire was vulnerable to attack at a variety of different points - and this was a problem that necessitated posting troops on several fronts at the same time

Question 18

Explain: The Mesopotamian Front

Answer 18

This was too important for the British to ignore, and in march 1917, another expeditionary force captured Baghdad and brought Souther Iraq under British control

Question 19

Explain: Importance of of the border of Ottoman Syria and British - occupied Egypt

Answer 19

It was the key to the Suez Canal. Jamal Pasha led an Ottoman army of 80,000 men across the Sinai Peninsula for a quick strike on the Suez Canal. Because the campaign was poorly coordinated - the Ottoman forces were driven back before they began a massive build up of troops in Egypt

Question 20

What was the Armistice of Mudros?

Answer 20

It was signed on October 31st 1918, and it was signed by the Government in Istanbul.

It was a document of unconditional surrender that brought an end to the War in the Middle East and with it the end of the Empire.

Question 21

What happened after the Agreement was signed?

Answer 21

An allied fleet anchored off Istanbul and the Imperial Capital was brought under British military occupation

Question 22

Why was a call to Jihad issued in November 1914?

Answer 22

A call to Jihad was issued which urged all Muslims all over the world to unite behind the Ottoman Empire in its confrontation with the Triple Entente.

They claimed that the Triple Entente were bent on destroying Muslim sovereignty around the globe and warned Muslims that unless they responded to Jihad, Islam faced extinction - this gave the impression that the Ottoman Empire viewed themselves as the protectors of Islam.

Question 23

What was the purpose of the treaties signed between the countries of the Entente?

Answer 23

The Entente signed a number of agreements among themselves on the future disposition of Ottoman territories, and they were designed solely to serve the interests of the European members of the alliance.

The main purpose of the treaties were to keep the Entente intact by resolving potential post - war disagreements before they surfaced.

Question 24

Who was Sharif Husayn and what was his involvement with the Arab Rebellion?

Answer 24

He was known for launching the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Army. During WWI, the Ottoman Empire sided with the central powers against the allies, and this gave him the opportunity to liberate the Arab lands from Turkish rule by allying himself with the British and French.
In agreeing to recognise an independent Arab state after the war, Britain promised to provide Husayn with the supplies, weapons and funds for his revolt against the Ottomans and to recognise an Arab caliphate should one be proclaimed.