Week 1 Flashcards
Biology, behaviour and environment -
The core of human development can be generalised to underlying biological, behavioral and environmental factors that change as the ‘biological’ infant turns into the ‘social’ adult. Neither biological nor social factors alone can provide a satisfactory explanation of all human development.
Biological facts, such as the physical consequences of possessing a functioning Y chromosome, are acted on by society, which classifies its members as ‘male’ or ‘female’. Social preferences have always been among the forces admitted as working for ‘natural selection’, from Darwin onwards; social changes, such as industrialisation, have biological consequences, such as changes in what causes illness or death. Even at the genetic level, exactly how genes’ instructions work may be strongly influenced by the environment. This week we will explore these biological, behavioral and environmental factors in more detail.
When considering the environment that an infant is exposed to we must also keep in mind the social environment. Greater social experience in infancy can affect brain development in significant ways such as:
- an increase in neurological cells
- an increase branching of neuronal dendrites
- an increase in spine cell counts
- ratio of RNA to DNA (chemical synthetic processes).
Introduction to genes and behaviour
There are some basic facts you need to be aware of when considering genes and their link to behaviour. These are:
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the hereditary material of life
- a gene is a functional unit of DNA that produces a protein
- different versions of the same gene produce slightly different proteins
- adults have two sets of DNA, one from each parent.
Heritability
Inherited from Genes (parents, grandparents, etc)
Epigenetics
Genes
Read Chapter 1 Introducing the study of child development (Links to an external site.) (Meadows, 2017, pp. 1–32) for an introduction to the complex and interactive nature of early human development. Pay particular attention to ‘Conceptual issues’ and ‘Systems theories’. - Explain how individuals can be considered active producers of their own development.
- education - recommended by Plato in the Republic and miht be identified in the triprtite secondary school system set up in Britain under the 1944 education Act.
- 2 futuristic novels as examples, Skinner in Walden Two and for the inhabitants of Huxley’s Brave new World, the main criterion is fitting happily into and serving society and a major means to this end is pervasive and skillful conditioning.
Biological, Social and Individual causes of development:
- if every relevant aspect of their environment has been identical, differences between them can be attributed to how their genes expressed themselves in that environment.
- higher levels of testosterone, such as in males on average compared with females, seem to be associated with higher levels of aggression.
- traditionally males are treated as stronger, more independent, braver than females and their aggression is accepted or even encouraged. Females are likely to be treated as softer and weaker, more dependent, more in need of protection and aggression or even self-assertion is discouraged except occasionally in private or when very indirectly expressed.
- a child who genetically caused articulation problem, such as a cleft palate, might be harder to listen to, less encouraged to talk, less rewarded for social interaction, more introverted, more reclusive and lower in self-esteem than the child whose conversation has been more accessible to listeners
- much of our genetic material is very similar to that of other primates (chimps) regulation of the protein manufacture, the prolongation of infantile characteristics or neoteny.
Continuity and Discontinuity in Development:
- longitudinal study - boys ages 3 - 8 who were timid were more likely as adults to have chosen secure jobs with large employers, rather than choosing risky jobs
- ‘continuity’ should mean links over time, not just a lack of change.
- family environments do affect their members and may cause them to have problems and so too do other environments such as schools.
- genetic influences, susceptibility to alcohol, an impulsive temperament, low IQ
Values of Science:
- good science tries to ensure that what is said is, if not fully objective at least not heavily dependent on the idiosyncrasies, the ideology or the action so of the researcher.
- generalisation, places a priority on trying to find out what is true of others beyond the small sets of cases you are focussing on.
- prediction - scientists want to be able to predict future results. Using prediction as a specific tool also opens up the possibility of developing ways of doing it with greater and greater precision.
- science emphasises clarity and replication
Cross sectional studies - may have problems with what is a suitable measurement tool at different ages; results will not be informative if none of the youngest group can get off the bottom score or the entire oldest group hit the ceiling.
Longitudinal Studies
Bronfenbrenners:
- characteristics may change over time for biological or social reasons. ecology of human development - engaging in one-on-one relationships. Micro systems - carers in a childs life. Exosystems - hours worked by the parent, availability etc.
- development contexts may differ in size and complexity and in their relationship to other developmental contexts.
- Bronfenbrenners model, therefore, includes not just the immediate context of the childs experience, but also those other contexts that impinge upon it, sometimes far away from the childs experience.
- The impact of one-off events may be different and produced differently from the impact of chronic events that have happened thousands of times over a long period.
Read Chapter 8: Genes in Development and Evolution (PDF 810 KB) (Links to an external site.) (Bateson, 2017, pp. 77–90) and Chapter 9: Active Role of Behaviour (PDF 865 KB) (Links to an external site.) (Bateson, 2017, pp. 91–100) for information on how individuals can be considered active producers of their own development.
- provides the basis for a distinctive beneficial character of an individual, that is not sufficient for the development of character.
- become clear that the same molecule of DNA may serve as processes that differ in function.
- gene = has a clear unambiguous meaning. Sequence of DNA or specifically to those segments of DNA that are transcribed into ribonucleic acid (RNA) then translated into a protein. 23 pairs of chromosomes found in a human cell. Type 1 diabetes = small effect on DNA, phenylketonuria or haemophilia = rare
- genes in development - social and ecological factors is crucial, misleading = DNA is blueprint, developing organisms are dynamic systems that play an active role in their own development. Stands of DNA do not make behaviour patterns or physical attributes. They code for polypeptides and the precursors of proteins or small molecules of RNA. Some proteins are enzymes, controlling biochemical reactions, while others form the physical structures of cells. the gradual emergence of behavioural complexity within the mammals was not achieved by accumulating the genes that coes for protein components. nervous systems and the emergence of behaviour are critically dependent on regulation and the combinatorial action of genes. A small subset of genes and cytoplasmic conditions start the whole process after fertilisation of the egg.
- genes do not code for parts of the nervous system or behaviour patterns
Heritability:
- height, clearly influenced by both the individuals family background and nutrition.
- not a fixed or absolute quantity
- the heritability of height will consequently be larger in a population of exclusively well-nourished people that it would be among people drawn from a wider range of environments.
- reveal nothing about the ways in which genes and environment contribute to the biological and psychological processes of development.
- the effects of a particular set of genes depend critically on the environment in which they are expressed, while the effects of a particular sort of environment depend on the individuals genes.
Epigenetics:
- twins = can be the same or different
- schizophrenia 1 twin may get it, 1 may not
- environmental determinists = twins reared apart must have different experiences.
- result of silencing or activation of gene expression through such modification of the roles of DNA or its associated RNA and protein.
- the molecular process = regulation of cellular and proliferation
- differences within a developing individual are inherited from mother cells to daughter cells.
- molecular mechanisms are involved in the activation or silencing
- important mechanisms in development involves small molecules of non-coding micro-RNA. When they are expressed they may bind onto messenger RNA which links as an intermediate between DNA and protein, with the result that the gene that expressed the messenger RNA loses it capacity
to code for protein and is effectively silenced.
Selfish Genes:
- Richard Dawkins - self-sacrifice conflicts between the sexes and generations.
- Darwin ‘natural selection’
Read Head shape and the perception of cuteness (Links to an external site.) (Alley, 1981, pp. 650–654) to see how schemas affect the way we perceive the human face.
- Konrad Lorenz suggested that some specific physical characteristics of infants - including their predominant and protruding foreheads - may elicit care giving and a positive effective response wherein infants are seen as cute.
- study expects that the more infantile or babyish the shape of the head, the cuter it will appear.
Method:
- 25 undergrades
- Experiment 1 & 3 - asked to rank order from least to most cute, randomized sets of 5 drawings constituting each of the 3 transformational series.
- Experiment 2 - required to select the cuter of the profiles in teh 20 pairs
Discussion;
- Experiment 1 & 3 - demonstrated that subjects asked to rank order sets of either profile or fronal drawings of human heads from least to most cute will order them in accordance with their babyishness.
- Experiment 2 - showed that subjects ill tend to select as the cuter of a pair of profile drawings that which has the more babyish head shape.
- didnt test the underlying assumption that the perception of cuteness actually elicits approach and caretaking behavior, some preliminary results, however, support this assumption.
- generalisation - advanced with caution
- other variables - age, observer, observer familiarity with the infant.
Bond between mother and baby
As I feel we have all mentioned in our discussion posts, the factors would influence the bond between parents and a newborn are multidimensional. Attachment starts between mother and child long before the child is born into the physical world. This attachment only has the possibility to strengthen after the child is born and a psychological and emotional attachment commences. Undeniably, this bond is vital to the development of a child. Through consistent response and care of newborns, a strong attachment can be cultivated between parent/s and child. Inhibitors to this attachment can present from issues.
Environmentally, insufficient safety or stability within the family home can be detrimental to the bond between parents and newborn. Furthermore, medical repercussions on the child from environmental substances consumed during pregnancy (drugs, alcohol, chemicals or radioactivity) could affects the child’s health in their pre natal development thus negatively affecting their ability to sufficiently bond.
Mental health, psychical health and the relationship strength between parents can also inhibit the bond with the child. A jeopardised or turbulent relationship between parents can deter attention away from said bonding. Furthermore, an unwell mother during first stages of life could inhibit the child from feeling the ‘anchor’ of having a mother as a ‘safe space’ when wanting to explore their surroundings. Mental health issues for parents such as post natal depression, CAD (Child Attachment Disorder), depression and anxiety also may hinder sufficient bonding. Likewise, these mental health conditions may impede the formation of routine for the child or implementation of a functional schedule making the parental bond weaken as the child feels like it cannot reply on the parent/s for stability.
Extended family health and wellbeing may also impact bonding between parent and child, for example the loss or illness of an extended family member may detract attention from boding with new born during a stressful or grieving period.
Socioeconomic status (SES) of the parents may hinder the bond between parent and newborn. If parents have to return to work not long after the birth to provide for the family, if may have repercussions on the Childs ability to bond sufficiently. Finally, the high cost of raising a new born may place stress of the family relationship. Be it between parents of between parent and child; resentment may stem from this stress causing friction in the relationship and affecting the bonding capacity.
Read Parental misperception of youngest child size (Links to an external site.) (Kaufman et al., 2013, pp. R1085–R1086).
- after the birth of the second child, many parents report that their first child appears to grow suddenly and substantially larger.
- hypothesised that human parents are subject to a kind of baby illusion, under which they routinely misperceive their youngest child as smaller than they are, regardless of the age.
- 747 mothers, surveyed
- mothers hold inaccurately small representations of their youngest child.
- baby schema - infantile physical features that are typically regarded by adults as cute and attractive.
- top down processes
