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Advanced Metabolism > Week 1 > Flashcards

Week 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is made from organic material?

A

Amino acids, nucleic acids, lipids, sugars, phosphate

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2
Q

What does metabolism do?

A

Breaks down macromolecules to simple, cell usable molecules.

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3
Q

What elements makeup 99% of cell mass?

A

H (1 bond)
O (2bond)
N (3 bonds)
C (4 bonds)

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4
Q

What are stereoisomers?

A
  • stereospecific

- cis or trans

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5
Q

What is a mirror image stereoisomer?

A

Enantiomer, has identical chemical characterisitics.

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6
Q

What is not a mirror image stereoisomer?

A

Diastereomer, different chemical characteristics.

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7
Q

What is an example of a stereoisomer?

A

Glucose with hexokinase, ligand with hormone, antibody with antigen

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8
Q

When gibbs free eneregy is negative, the reaction proceeds?

A

Forward

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9
Q

When gibbs free energy is zero, the reaction proceeds?

A

Equilibrium

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10
Q

When gibbs free energy is postivive, the reaction proceeds in ?

A

Reverse

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11
Q

What are the 5 reaction types in metabolism?

A 
make/break C-C bond
Internal rearrangements
free radical reactions
group transfers
oxidation-reduction reactions
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12
Q

What are the 2 ways to break a covalent bond?

A

Homolytic(even distribution)

Heterolytic (uneven distribution of e-)

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13
Q

Nucleophiles are rich in ? and donate what?

A

Electrons

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14
Q

Electrophiles are deficient in? and accept what?

A

Electrons

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15
Q

What is both an electrophile and a nucleophile?

A

Carbon

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16
Q

What is the increase in electronegativity gradient?

A

H

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17
Q

What are more reduced compounds rich in ?

A

Hydrogen

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18
Q

What are more oxidised compounds rich in ?

A

Oxygen

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19
Q

What is the most oxidised carbon state?

A

Carbon dioxide

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20
Q

What is the most reduced carbon dioxide?

A

CH4

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21
Q

What happens to metabolism energy ?

A

It is harvested and reutilised.

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22
Q

What type of classification do humans have based on their energy source?

A

chemoheterotroph

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23
Q

What is strongly favourable?

A

The complete oxidation of reduced compounds (glucose) is strongly favorable.

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24
Q

What can energy stored in reduced organic compounds do?

A

It can be used to reduce cofactors such as NAD+ and FAD, which serve as universal electron carriers.

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25
Q

What are the four ways in which electrons are passed from electron donors to electron acceptors?

A
  • directly as electrons
  • as hydrogen atoms
  • as hydride ions (2 electrons)
  • by a combination of organic reductants with O2.
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26
Q

What electrons carrriers are also coenzymes that undergo oxidation/reduction reactions in electron transfer reactions?

A

NAD, NADP, FAD, FMN

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27
Q

What is catabolism?

A

Primarily energy-producing

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28
Q

What is anabolism?

A

Primarily using energy to build complex structures –> anabolism/biosynthesis

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29
Q

What does cellular metabolism provide ?

A

energy:

  • electrons, reducing power: NADPH, NADH, FADH
  • chemical energy - ATP
  • Inorganic phosphate
  • other carriers
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30
Q

What cofactors drive proton motive force and in what process? What do they produce?

A

NADH, FADH
Process: oxidative phosphorylation
ATP

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31
Q

What can ATP be regenerated from?

A

Substrate level phosphorylation by kinase enzymes

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32
Q

What are the two bonds in ATP?

A

Phosphoanhydride bonds

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33
Q

What drives reaction such as muscle contraction?

A

Hydrolysis of ATP

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34
Q

What does all catabolism and anabolism converge on ?

A

Acetyl Co A oxidation, pxphos to produce ATP and Co2

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35
Q

What are the smallest components of proteins and what are they linked by ?

A

Amino acids and peptide bonds

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36
Q

What are the smallest components of nucleic acids and what are they linked by ?

A

Nucelotides and phosphodiester bonds

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37
Q

What are the smallest components of polysaccharides and what are they linked by?

A

monosaccharides and glycosidic bonds

38
Q

What are the two types of enzymes?

A

proteins and catalytic RNAs

39
Q

What is an energy-requiring reaction called?

A

endergonic

40
Q

What is an energy-releasing reaction called?

A

exergonic

41
Q

What is the energy of hydrolysis for each inorganic phosphate?

A

-7.3kcal/mol

42
Q

What are metabolic pathways?

A

They are conserved and are interconnected

43
Q

What are the catabolic/convergent pathways?

A

transform fuels into cell energy, glycolysis and TCA cycle

44
Q

What are the divergent/anabolic pathways?

A

Fatty acid biosynthesis

45
Q

What are the waste disposal pathways?

A

Removal of NH3 during the catabolism of amino acids via the urea cycle

46
Q

What do metabolic pathways converge on?

A

Acetyl co A

47
Q

What effects on the fed/fasted state are on glycolysis?

A

There is a need to increased the capacity of glycolysis during the action (fed state), there is then a need to reduce the capacity of glycolysis after the action (fasted state). Need to increase the capacity of a different reaction, gluconeogenesis after successful action (when blood glucose is low in fasted state)

48
Q

Are cells isothermal and if so what does it mean?

A

They maintain a constant temperature and there is a controlled energy release.

49
Q

Irreversible reactions are?

A

Thermodynamically unfavourable

50
Q

How do cells regulate catabolism and anabolism?

A

irreversible reactions
unique enzymes
compartmentalization
feedback control

51
Q

What is allostery?

A

This is where allosteric enzymes are regulated by molecules called effectors that bind non-covalently at a site other than the substrate binding/active site

52
Q

What is the rate limiting enzyme for the conversion of threonine to isoleucine?

A

Isoleucine

53
Q

What inhibits the commitment step of glycolysis?

A

ATP

54
Q

What processes occur in the mitochondria?

A

TCA cycle
Fatty acid oxidation
Oxidation of pyruvate

55
Q

What processes occur in the cytosol?

A

Glycolysis
PP pathway
Fatty acid synthesis

56
Q

What are the three functions of carbohydrates?

A

Energy storage, membrane components - signaling and structure, exoskeleton and cellulose

57
Q

What is a branched polymer of glucose?

A

Glycogen and cellulose

58
Q

What is an unbranched polymer of glucose?

A

Cellulose

59
Q

What enzyme joins hexoses together to form disaccharides?

A

glycosyltransferases

60
Q

What enzymes are involved in the hydrolysis of a glycosidic bond?

A

glycoside hydrolases
Glycosidases:
alpha amylase - a(1-4)
no enzyme for - B(1-4)

61
Q

What are the four specific disaccharides involved in the digestion of carbohydrates in food?

A

isomaltose
maltase
sucrase
trehalose

62
Q

What are the specific transporters for different sugars?

A

GLUT - glucose transporter

SGLT - sodium dependent glucose transporter

63
Q

What does GLUT 2 do?

A

brings glucose from cells to portal circulation (glucose release to blood)

64
Q

What does glut 4 do?

A

transports glucose to the muscles and adipose tissue, increased uptake with insulin

65
Q

What are the 4 significant fates of glucose?

A

structure, storage (FED), nucleic acid synthesis, energy and metabolic intermediates (pyruvate to acetyl co A and Glycolysis (FED/FASTED)

66
Q

Describe aerobic glycolysis?

A

glycolysis - pyruvate to acetyl Co A to mitochondria to ATP, ETC, OXPHOS

67
Q

Describe anaerobic glycolysis?

A

glycolysis - pyruvate - lactate, occurs in cells lacking mitochondria and oxygen such as erythrocytes

68
Q

What does glycolysis do?

A

It is where reduced NADH needs to be recycled.

69
Q

What is the first step of glycolysis?

A

Phosphorylation of glucose to glucose 6 phosphate, traps glucose in the cytosol.

70
Q

What is the net yield of glycolysis?

A

2 pyruvate from one glucose
2 ATP from 2 ADP
2 NADH from 2 NAD

71
Q

In the prep phase what is the phosphoryl donor?

A

ATP

72
Q

In the pay off phase what is the phosphoryl donor?

A

Inorganic phosphate

73
Q

Where does the energy payoff come through?

A

ATP formation

NADP formation

74
Q

What are some examples of negative feedback on glycolysis?

A

glucose 6 P
High ATP
Citrate
Glucokinase regulatory protein

75
Q

Under anaerobic conditions, what is pyruvate reduced to?

A

Lactate and ethanol

76
Q

What is lactic acidosis?

A
  • elevated concentrations of lactate in the plasma when there is a collapse in the circulatory system - lack of oxygen supply to the tissues and cells - myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, uncontrolled hemorrhage
77
Q

Can lactate be used to synthesise glucose?

A

Yes

78
Q

What is the Warburg Effect?

A

Cancer cells and tissues have a very active anaerobic glucose catbolism even in the presence of oxygen.

79
Q

What glycolytic enzyme was at an increased level in cancer tissues?

A

Hexokinase and glucose transporters

80
Q

What is the role of HIFa in the Warburg Effect?

A

Hypoxia Inducing Factor - transcription factor strong role in the upregulation of HK and GLuT in tumours

81
Q

What are the 3 therapies which exploit glycolysis?

A

2 deoxyglucose
Ionidamine
3-bromopyruvate

82
Q

What are the three regulatory enzymes in glycolysis?

A

Hexokinase
phosphofructokinase
pyruvate kinase

83
Q

What is an acetyl group?

A

COCH3

84
Q

What do you see in the fed state?

A 
Insulin
ATP levels
NADH and NADPH levels
Citrate
Oxaloacetate
85
Q

What do you see in the fasted state?

A

Glucagon
ADP levels and Pi
NAD and NADP levels Ca2+

86
Q

Which GLUT transporter is seen with increased uptake of insulin?

A

Glut 4 –> Muscles and adipose tissue

87
Q

Where does glycolysis occur?

A

In the cytoplasm

88
Q

The addition of what to glucose by the enzyme traps glucose inside the cell for glycolysis?

A

Charged Phosphate Group

89
Q

What are the three possible fates of pyruvate?

A
  • 2 acetyl CoA
  • 2 Lactate
  • 2 ethanol and 2 CO2
90
Q

Which glucose transporter is not released into the plasma membrane in type 1 diabetes?

A

GLUT 4

91
Q

What happens if too much insulin is released?

A

Hyperinsulinemia… irreversible brain damage.

Advanced Metabolism (8 decks)

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