Water Cycle Flashcards
1
Q
What are the human causes of drought?
A
DEBBIE DOCTOR IS PRETTY HOT
- Deforestation
- Dam construction
- Irrigation
- Population growth & over extraction
- Human induced climate change
2
Q
Why does Australia suffer from drought?
A
- Anthropogenic factors: climate change and deforestation
2. Physical factors: El Nino
3
Q
Australia CO2 per capita in 2013?
A
25 metric tonnes of CO2 per capita in 2013!
4
Q
Australian deforestation?
A
5000 sqkm of bushland cleared annaully
Has lost 25% of rainforest and 45% of open forest in last 250 years!
5
Q
Major last ENSO event?
A
2014-16
6
Q
What is a wetland?
A
An area of marsh, fen, peatland or water
Whether natural or artificial
Permanent or temporary
With water that is static/flowing/ fresh/ brackish/ salty
7
Q
How much do wetlands cover?
A
Wetlands cover 10% of the Earth’s surface
8
Q
What are the functions of wetlands?
A
TGHP (Thank God He Phit)
- Act as temporary water stores (mitigate, protect)
- mitigates river floods downstream
- protect land from destructive erosion - Giant water filters (traprec and maintain)
- trapping and recycling nutrients
- maintaining water quality - High biological productivity
- support diverse food web - Providers
- resources e.g. fish
- services e.g. hydrology
9
Q
What is the impact of drought on wetlands?
A
- Less precip = less interception of veg = decline
2. Less infil & percolation = water table levels fall (water for wetland = groundwater = cannot be replenished :(
10
Q
Resilience of wetlands?
A
During Saddam Hussein’s dictatorship, the marshlands in Southern Iraq turned to deserts
BUT after his overthrow in 2003 - marshes restored to being super healthy! :) SUPER RESILIENT
11
Q
When does flooding occur?
A
If the discharge is of sufficient quantity to cause a body of water to overflow its channel and submerge the surrounding land
12
Q
Where are the areas most at risk from flooding?
A
- Low lying parts of flood plains
- Low lying areas partially urbanised with impermeable surfaces
- Small basins - flash flooding
13
Q
Types of flooding?
A
- Groundwater flooding
- due to saturation from prolonged heavy rainfall - Surface water flooding
- insufficient time to infiltrate soil, so flows on surface - Flash flooding
- short lag times
- v. intense convectional storms
14
Q
What is the recurrence interval?
A
The estimate of the likelihood of an event
15
Q
Physical causes of flooding?
A
- Intense storms over a short period of time
- flash flooding
- usually ground is baked with no prior rainfall
- cannot infilitrate
- surface run off - Unusually excessive precipitation over a long period of time
- causes saturation of the soil
- increased overland run off
- usually associated with low pressure systems e.g. UK
- UK = usually autumn - early winter
- areas of flood risk in UK = Cardiff & London - Extreme monsoonal rainfall
- e.g. Asia = Bangladesh, India
- ITCZ = June - August
- Around 70% of annual rainfall in 100 days!
- Half of the country is less than 12.5 metres above sea level! - Snowmelt
- most common flooding is when subsoil is still frozen, cannot infiltrate, surface run offffff
- late spring, early summer
- Ob and Yenisei = annual flooding in Siberia
- glacial outburst floods/jokulhlaups too!
16
Q
ITCZ movement?
A
December-January: NORTH
June - August: SOUTH
17
Q
ITCZ movement?
A
December-January: NORTH
June - August: SOUTH
18
Q
Why do floods frequently flood esturine areas?
A
High river flows interact with high tidal conditions @ coast
19
Q
What are the physical factors affecting flood levels?
A
- Slope
- steeper gradient = more run off = more flood risk - Vegetation
- more veg = higher interception = more infilitration etc = reduces lag time = less flood risk - Soil type
- permeable soils e.g. Sandy (3-12mm/hr) = greater infilitration = less surface run off = less flood risk (but Clay = 0.4mm/hr = flood!)
20
Q
Human causes of flooding?
A
DUC
don’t u cock
- deforestation
- urbanisation
- anthropogenic climate change (melting glaciers & snowmelt & more intense weather events)
21
Q
Human factors on DB?
A
Don’t u dare fuck off DUD
- dam construction
- urbanisation
- deforestation
- farmland and irrigation
- overextraction
22
Q
When was Cape Town Water Crisis?
A
2017-18
23
Q
Physical factors on DB?
A
Catherine steals girlfriend really vigourously
- climate
- soils
- geology
- relief
- vegetation
24
Q
Urbanisation of UK?
A
82% of pop live in towns and cities
25
Urbanisation as a flood risk factor?
1. Creation of impermeable surfaces
- surface run off
2. Creation of artificial conduits e.g. drains and sewars
- speeds up water in DB
3. Straightening channels
- increases flow
- increase flood risk downstream
26
What does surface run off do?
Reduces lag time (btwn peak rainfall and peak discharge) so water moves through DB very quick and augments flood risk
27
How does drought affect forest ecosystem?
California drought (2011-2015)
- 29 million trees has died
- impact global climate patterns (positive feedback = inc further temperatures = more trees die) :(
28
Flood disasters between 1990 and 2010?
3000!
| 200,000 deaths
29
How many people will floods kill yearly?
25,000
30
What does the degree of threat from a flood depend on?
1. Depth and velocity of the water
- 2m/s = foundations of buildings start to collapse
2. Duration of the flood
- longer flood = more threats
3. Development
- low dev = low swimmers = high flood threat
- low dev = low healthcare = high % of mortality due to water borne diseases
31
Economic impacts of flooding?
1. On settlement
- loss of property: homelessness
- issue of flood insurance
2. Economic activity
- buildings damaged by floods = economic activity output declines
- developing country = subsistence farming = lands flooded and animals killed
- e.g. Storm Desmond 2015: Carlisle floods, Mcvities temporary closure = loss of 1000 jobs
- tourism losses
3. On infrastructure
- high in megacities with large imp. buildings
- e.g. Cockermouth, Cumbria, 2015, Storm Desmond: destruction of key bridges and roads e.g.
32
Environmental impacts of flooding?
SOME POSITIVES!
1. Recharge groundwater systems
2. Fill wetlands (their importance: TGHP)
3. Increase connectivity between aquatic habitats
4. Movement of sediment and nutrients around lanscapes
HOWEVER, environments degraded by human activities: NEGATIVES:
+ oversupplies of sediment and nutrients (already lots by adding by human) = eutrophication
+ Pollution from chemicals of human activities = destroy aquatic life
33
When was Storm Desmond?
December 2015
34
What does climate change affect in the hydrological cycle?
I Only Make William Gay
1. Inputs (more rain than snow, more intense precip events, and drying of land surface = droughts & desertification)
2. Outputs (more evapo, transp)
3. Melting of permafrost (CH4, positive feedback)
4. Wetlands (drying up, so imp = TGHP)
5. Glaciers (melting, affecting water supplies e.g. Asia and livelihoods of ppl in glacial areas .e.g Andes, and Himalayas = food and crops!!!)
35
Why is modelling climate change trends very complex?
DYTELEREC
1. Climate dynamics: only partially understood
2. Global records: insufficient depth and detail of evidence
3. Telecommunications: hard to distinguish btwn strong El Nino event and climatic warming
36
How does intense, INFREQUENT precip events link to flooding?
More intense, infrequent precip events = surface run off = baked ground = lack of infilitration = flooding
37
Climate change: hydro cycle: mnemonic?
I Only Make William Gay
38
What was the wettest year ever recorded?
2010
caused:
- floods in Tennessee, Brazil and Philippines
39
What have droughts become?
More widespread, more intense, more persistent
40
What does climate change and global warming cause?
Uncertainty over security of water supplies
41
China and India pop?
```
China = 1.4bn
India = 1.36bn
```
42
Supply and demand with water?
Demand is increasing
Supply is decreasing
= WATER STRESS AND SCARCITY
43
Peak water?
The state of growing constraints on quantity and quality of accessible water
44
Lack of water %?
In 2015, 15% of world's pop still didn't have reliable access to safe water
45
Why is there an unequal water world?
1. Physical distribution
- where supply is, and where demand is
- 60% of water supples in just 10 countries!
46
What are players?
Individuals, groups or organisations with an involvement/interest in a particular area
47
Why is demand of water rising?
1. Population growth (8.5 bn in 2030!)
2. Rising standard of living (China = 27% of world meat , water for livestock farming, demand for consumer goods= white goods)
3. Economic growth (in agriculture, industry (fracking is super water intensive), energy etc)
48
Explain why price of water varies globally?
1. Costs of obtaining supply
- water pathway/pipeline
2. Demand
- high demand, low supply = high prices
- more developed pop = higher demand of water e.g. 1 in 30 Americans have a swimming pool = can demand higher prices
3. Government policies
- can hike up prices to lower demand due to low supply
- can hike up prices to stop wasting of water
- can lower prices to encourage some types of industry eg. USA, California = cheap to encourage agricultural usage
49
Why are supplies dwindling?
1. Irrigation
| 2. Over extraction
50
Why are water supplies under threat?
1. Diminishing supply (cc, and lack of good qual from pollution)
2. Rising demands
3. Competing demands from users
= PRESSURE POINTS
51
What is water stress?
Below 1,700 m3 per person
52
What is water scarcity?
Below 1,000 m3 per person
By 2050, 1.5bn will be experiencing water scarcity!!
1. Physical scarcity
- insufficient water to meet demand
- climatic zones (river regimes), geology
- e.g. Central Asian Highlands = glaciers in himalayas feed rivers e.g. Yangtze and Mekong - glaciers have rapidly retreated = water scarcity for billions that rely on them! (95% of glaciers are in rapid retreat)
2. Economic scarcity
- development of water resources is limited by lack of tech, capital good governance
- Sub-Saharan Africa
53
What is a sufficient water supply?
3000m3 per person
54
What is water insecurity?
1. Present and future supplies of water cannot be guaranteed
2. Leading to a need for physical, political and economic solutions
55
What are the causes of water insecurity?
PHYSICAL:
1. Climatic variability:
EQUITORIAL, ALTITUDE, MONSOONAL, TROPICAL
- equatorial and mid latitudes regions = highest rainfall = ITCZ = low water security
- high altitudes = snow pack melt = high water releases = low water security = CLIMATIC WARMING = WATER INSECURITY
- monsoonal areas = one main peak in June-August = low water security in other months
- some tropical areas affecting by climate variation - SA and OZ (El Nino) = Oz = water insecure in El Nino period
2. Geology:
- geology influences the river regime, as it influences the release of groundwater stored in aquifers to the river = dependent on river??
- permeable rocks = limestone and chalk = more water secure!
HUMAN:
1. Over extraction
- increasing population (8.5bn in 2030)
- increasing standard of living (1 in 30 americans = pool and asian middle class 46 > 65)
- development of countries (Rostow Modernisation, demands of water)
- Agriculture: biggest user of water (69% of world's freshwater supply)
- Industry: 21% of world's freshwater supply
2. Water contamination
- humans can pollute surface water and groundwater supplies of water
- china = 300 million people use contaminated water daily
- contamination:
1. Due to untreated sewage disposal (in India only 20% of sewage is treated before being disposed in rivers)
2. Industrial waste - ganges, tanneries, dump
56
What is economic scarcity?
1. Development of blue water resources is limited by lack of technology and good governance :(
e. g. DRC and Angola
57
Examples of permeable rocks?
Limestone and chalk
58
China contaminated water fact?
300 mil people use contaminated water daily
59
India sewage water?
Only 20% of sewage water is treated before being disposed in rivers in India
60
Tannery?
Production of leather
61
Agriculture freshwater supply?
Agriculture uses 69% of freshwater supply
62
Differences in prices of water?
For 1000 litres of water
UK = $1.62
Dar el Salaam = $ 8
USA = $0.68
63
Factors of water insecurity?
1. Availability
2. Access
3. Usage
64
Water Poverty Index?
```
Canada = rich = 78
Ethiopia = poor = 48
```
65
Privitisation of water case study?
Bolivia, Cochabamba, 2000
- WB and IMF believe in SAP's = which see privitisation of utilities as essential
- Bolivia = suffered debt = privitise!
- water prices tripled and even quadrupled
- aguas del tunari (owned by London based company Int. Water Ltd and USA's Bechdel) took over water system
- caused protests
- 175 marchers injured
- 6 killed
66
What is the importance for water?
1. Economic development :) :) :) :)
1 INDUSTRY
- 21% of freshwater: industry
- chemical, petroleum, paper and electronic industries need a fat tonne of water
2 ENERGY SUPPLY
- biofuels = very thirsty
- HEP
- nuclear plants = uranium
3 AGRICULTURE
- depeeeendant on rainwater
- 69% of freshwater: agriculture
- water for irrigation
- dietary revolution in the world, more people eating meat and dairy = more water intensive = the water for 1kg of beef is X6 that of for rice! (China = 27% of world meat)
2. Human wellbeing :) :) :) :) :)
1 SANITATION AND HEALTH
- diseases from faeces-oral routes: typhoid, cholera, dysentary
- diarrhoea kills 3 children every min!
- water = breeding ground for vectors of diseases e.g. malarial mosquitos and parasitic worms = zika and malaria
- dehydration
3 FOOD PREPARATION
- prevention of spreading diseases
- washing your hands
- stops faeces, oral diseases
67
What does clean water do?
- Reduces poverty
- Increases female empowerment
- Increases health
- Increases economic development
- Reduces mortality rate
68
When does water conflict occur?
Demand is increasing
Supply is decreasing
A number of players who wish to use the same diminished resources =
CONFLICT
69
Water conflict fact?
Between 1948 and 2008, out of the 2000 international events - 2/3 were about the quantity of water available
70
Water basins fact?
90% of all countries share water basins
71
What is the issue with water conflicts? (esp ground water)
1. Boundaries of rivers are unclear
2. Supplies are underground = difficult to see acc problem
3. No UN legislation @ present
72
Cool word for water politics?
Hydropolitics! :) :P CRAZY
73
Millenium Drought, Oz?
2001-2009
74
What did Ismail Serageldin say in 1995?
"Water is the oil of the 21st century"
| - was vice president of WB
75
Desertification example?
Aral Sea
- soviet gov diverted water to provide irrigation water for cotton farms
- 90% of sea gone by 2007 :((
76
What is the global hydrological cycle is driven by?
1. Solar energy
- allows evaporation and transpiration to occur > air masses > precipitation
- gives energy to water and air
2. GPE energy
- energy > kinetic energy as water moves through the system by interception, infiltration, through flow and runoff
- fall due to gravity
-
77
Oceans total water storage?
96.9%
78
Where is most of freshwater locked?
Cyrosphere
| Groundwater
79
Freshwater on earth?
3% of all water = freshwater
| 3% is accessible!!
80
Fossil water?
Untapped ancient stores of freshwater
81
Catchment?
Area of land drained by a river and it's tributaries
82
Water shed?
The highland which divides and seperates water flowing to different rivers
83
Water conflict in a country?
Colorado River
84
Where is C river?
South West USA
85
Where does C river and tributaries drain?
```
7 states: parts of:
wyoming
colorado
utah
new mexico
california
arizona
nevada
```
86
Colorado rviver basin size?
640,000km2
87
Provision of C river?
27 mil people
| 1.2 mil hectares of farmland
88
Management/usage of Colorado River?
Colorado River Compact
| Signed in 1928
89
Fault with the Colorado River Compact?
```
They over anticipiated the water discharge, they thought it would be 640m3/sec
BUT, it is actually 500-550m3/sec!
- over extraction
- over usage
- diminishing supplies
CONFLCIT
```
90
DISCHARGE OF COLORADO RIVER DIFFERENCES?
ANTICIPATED = 640M3/SEC
ACTUALLY =
500-550M3/SEC !!!! OOOO NAAH CONFLICT BRUUH
91
Players of the Colorado River?
1. Those who live in the upper part of the Basin e.g. Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico - they are the dominant people, can control the amount of water they want
2. Those who live in the lower part of the Basin e.g. California, Arizona (highly affected by what happens upstream)
3. Farmers
4. Regional governments
5. Consumers
6. TNC's
92
What are the human factors increasing demand in C river?
1. Increasing domestic and industrial water footprints (1 in 30 americans = pool, increasing affluence)
2. Expansion of irrigated crop land (increasing demand for food and agriculture)
3. Urbanisation and tourism in desert sunbelt (4.7 million people = Pheonix and 2.2 mil in Las Vegas, with 40 mil annual visitors)
4. Future population growth (2060 = 417mil)
93
Population of USA now?
317 mil
94
Population of USA in 2060?
417 mil
95
What are the human factors reducing supply in C river?
1. Over abstraction of water for irrigation purposes - Colorado is one of the breadbasket states
2. Dams: e.g. Glen Canyon in Arizona and Hoover Dam is Nevada = reduce the flow of water downstream - e.g. to California, New Mexico and South Arizona
3. Pollution from industrial activity
96
Where is the Glen Canyon dam?
Arizona
97
Where is the Hoover dam?
Nevada
98
Population of Phoenix?
4.7 mil
99
Population of Las Vegas?
2.2 mil
100
What are the physical factors reducing supply in C river?
1. Droughts becoming more severe and frequent e.g. 1987-1992 and 2005-2008 = higher evaporation of the rivers = evaporation losses is v high.
- Arizona = 97% in severe drought
- New Mexico = 88% in severe drought
2. Reduction in snow pack of Sierra Nevada: reducing spring meltwater = reducing the glacier feeding the river
3. Mojave Desert = natural aridity of the climate = intensified by anthropogenic climate change
101
Water conflict between countries?
The Nile
102
Nile river basin size?
3 million sqkm2
| Vs Colorado = 640,000km2
103
Nile countries?
11 countries compete for the Nile's water
104
Discharge of the Nile?
fairly modest discharge = 2,830m3/s
| Amazon = 209,000m3/s
105
How many people live within Nile basin?
300 million, expected to increase to 600 million by 2030
106
What is the main conflict between in the Nile?
Ethiopia and Egypt
107
Egypt - water scarcity?
1. Downstream position
2. Used to exploit the Nile (it simply flows into Med sea after Egypt - so can legit use it all up if need be)
3. 90% of water in Egypt comes from Nile
4. Very very little precipitation and groundwater storage so legit relies so much on Nile = precip can range from 200 mm to 0mm annually in some places! (Sahara Desert - ITCZ)
5. Population growth = 1985 = 50 mil, now 2019 = 100 mil!
108
Egyptian water from the Nile?
90% of Egyptian water comes from Nile
109
Ethiopia - water benefits?
1. Upstream position
2. Can control the flow downstream of the Nile
3. Ethiopia is the source of 85% of the Nile's water
4. 2011, construction began for $5bn dam = Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (evaporation losses= loose some of nile water AND can alter flow of water downstream = BAD FOR EGYPT!!) * Largest HEP plant in Africa
110
Unity in Nile Conflict?
Nile Basin Initiative
| 'One river, one people, one vision'
111
Different river regimes?
1. Amazon (South America)
- rainforest climate
- 6,000 km long
- peak discharge in April-May
- snow melt from Andes
- high EVT due to summer solar energy
2. Yukon (North America)
- Tundra climate
- 3,500km long
- peak discharge in May-June = snowmelt, glacier melt from rocky mountains
- low discharge december-may = frozen conditions
3. Indus (Asia)
- 3,000 km long
- peak discharge in May-August: snowmelt from Himalayas and monsoonal rainfall due to ITCZ
112
River regime?
Annual variation in discharge of river, measured in cumecs at a particular point/gauging station
113
ITCZ movement?
December-January: South of Equator
June-August: North of Equator
114
Storm Hydrograph?
Variation in discharge over a short period of time (individual storm or a group of storms)
115
Parts of a storm hydrograph?
1. Peak rainfall
2. Rising limb
3. Peak discharge
4. Lag time
5. Recessional limb
6. Base flow (normal flow of a river without the storm)
116
Factors affecting shape of storm hydrograph?
```
Suzanna Reid Licks Urine
1. Size of basin
2. Soils **
- impermeable (clay = 0-4mm/hr) or permeable (sand = 3-12mm/hr)
- surface run off, moves thro system v quickly, reaches river FAST
3. Relief **
- steep slopes = surface run off
4. Antecedent soil moisture
- soil saturation
5. Land use **
6 Urbanisation **
- conduits: surface run off: move faster
- impermeable surfaces: surface run off: move faster to river = SHORT LAG TIME !!!
```
117
Drought?
An extended period - a season, year or several years of deficient rainfall relative to the statistical average
118
WATER PLAYERS?
PEES
1. Political
- int. organisms e.g. UN = managing conflict, can set rules and regs and SDG's AND G8 e.g. Evian Action Plan 2003 AND WHO
- government departments e.g. DEFRA
2. Economic
- world bank and IMF = fund mega schemes and SAP's
- tnc water companies e.g. Aguas del Tunari = enough for population and clean
- businesses e.g. energy for biofuels and chemical, petroleum, paper and electronic industries
3. Social
- consumers (alter demand)
4. Environmental
- conservationists E.G. WWF
- env ngos e.g. water aid
- scientists and planners
119
How to manage water supply?
1. Hard engineering
| 2. Sustainable schemes
120
Hard engineering management?
1. Water Transfer Schemes
2. Mega Dams
3. Desalination plants
121
What do you NEEEED for hard engineering projects?
1. HIGH TECH
| 2. HIGH CAPITAL (Multi-billion!!!!!)
122
What is a water transfer?
Diversion of water from one drainage basin to another
123
Example of water transfer?
China South-North Water Transfer
124
China South-North Water Transfer?
Began in 2003
Due to finish in 2050
Costs of approx $100bn
North = high demand due to high population densities, intensive agriculture and industrial centres e.g. Bejing
Aims to divert 45 billion m3/year
Causes displacement of 330,000 people due to canal builiding
125
P&N of mega dams?
P:
- HEP, irrigation, flood control, domestic water supply
- move towards renewable energy due to increased global conscious of negative fossil fuel combustion
N: evaporation losses e.g. Lake Nassar behind Aswan Dam has evap losses of 10-16bn cubic metres a year, losses of 20-30% of Nile water!!
126
China, Three Gorges Dam?
Largest HEP plant in the world
Controls flooding with 23 flood gates
2 million m3 of water held in reservoir
127
How many mega dams in the world?
5,000
128
How many desal plants globally?
14,000
129
Freshwater on earth?
3% of all water
13% accessible
USE SEA WATER!
130
Why did desal come about?
Due to recent breakthroughs in tech: reverse osmosis process
131
Pro's of desal?
1. Good for future gens of conserving freshwater
| 2. Proven and effective
132
Negetives of desal?
1. COSTLY
2. Need to have proximity to sea water (not good 4 some)
3. Energy intensive
133
Top nations of desal capacity?
1. Saudi Arabia
2. UAE
3. USA
134
Desal example?
London, Thames
| 150 million litres of water produced daily = enough to supply 900,000 ppl
135
Sustainable solutions to manage water supply?
1. Water restoration
| 2. Water conservation: smart irrigation, recycling water
136
Water Restoration?
1960s and 1970's = meandering river > ditch called C38 canal
74% decrease in bald eagle pop
92% loss of birds
flow decrease = 0.42m/s to 0.05m/s
137
Colorado droughts areas?
1987-1992
| 2005-2008
138
Californian drought?
2011-2017
139
Water conservation: smart irrigation?
E.g. 27% of irrigated land in USA lies over the Ogallala quifer, which is at risk of over extraction and pollution
Solution? Drip Irrigation
- 16 wireless infrared sensors are put in a field to measure crop temperature to see if they need water
- @ certain temp = turn on automatically
- AND measure daily evapotran rates = publish on internet so farmers can adjust irrigation rates
BENEFITS?
+ yes it is sustainable :) BUT aquifer can run out!!
NEGETIVES?
+ costly!
+ must have good tech and capital - not good 4 developing
140
Water conservation: water recycling?
E.g. Singapore
- Area of only 710km2
- Population of 5.8 mil in 2019
- Receives abundant rainfall (2,400 mm a year) but lack of land to collect and store water :(
- NOW: Singapore is involved in recycled water (NEWater)
- 5 NEWater plants can meet up to 40% of demand
- By 2060, that figure will go up to 55%!!
YES - i think it is sustainable
but requires v v v v v good tech and capital (not suitable for developing/emerging countries...)
141
What are some ideas of DOMESTIC water conservation?
1. Smart water meters
| 2. Eco kettles
142
What is integrated water resource management?
1. A process that promotes co-ordinated development and management
2. of water, land and related resources
3. to maximise economic and social welfare
4. without compromising sustainability of ecosystems
+coperation is central e.g. Nile: many players but MUST coperate
+ ensure maximum efficiency of usage
+ players coming together and working tings out
+ e.g. Nile and Colorado players yep
143
Examples of water sharing treaties and frameworks?
1. UNECE Water Convention (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe)
+ joint management & conservation of shared freshwater ecosystems in Europe and neighbouring regions
2. Helsinki Rules
+ international guideline
+ how rivers and connected groundwater may be used
+ 1966
X no mechanism in place that enforces the rules X
+ water sharing is based on:
```
3. Berlin Rules on Water Resources
+ 2004, replaces Helsinki Rules
+ freshwater resources
+ 9 management principales =
--> Partipatory water managmeent
--> Equitable participation
--> Minimisation of env harm
--> Sustainability
--> Integrated management
```
BUT ISSUES OF WHETHER THESE FRAMEWORKS ARE REGULATED
