Water and Carbon cycles Flashcards
what is the water (hydrological) cycle
continuous transfer of water between land atmosphere, oceans
what is the carbon cycle
continuous movement of carbon between linking organisms and the environment through processes like photosynthesis, respiration decomposition and combustion
what are biogeochemical cycles
cycles involving biotic and abiotic components, cycles are understood through a system approach
What happens in the water cycle
- heat from sun
- evaporation
- condensation
- precipitation e.g. rain, sleet snow
- surface runoff
- infiltration - movement from ground to soil
- throughflow - movement through soil
- percolation - movement from soil into into rock
- groundwater flow
- stream flow
- evapotranspiration
What are the stores in the water cycle
clouds
vegetation
soil
ground
rivers/lakes
groundwater storage
ocean
what is the systems approach
simplifies the complexity of life
organizes and presents complex relationships between different components of physical environment
what are systems and what do they have
systems are bounded, generalisation of reality
have inputs, outputs, stores, flows (movement of matter or energy)
studied at a range of scales - local to global
what is the albedo affect
lighter surfaces reflect the suns energy/light e.g. ice, snow. Darker surfaces absorb the suns energy/light e.g. oceans, water
what is a system
a set of interrelated components working together towards some kind of process
what is an open system
matter and energy can be transferred from the system across the boundary into the surrounding environment
what is a closed system
has a transfer of energy both into and beyond the system boundary but not a transfer of matter
what is a boundry
the barrier of a system
what is a flow/transfer
a form of linkage between one store/component and another that involves movement of mass/energy
what is an input
the addition of matter/energy into a system
what is a store/component
a part of the system where energy/ mass is stored or transformed
what is an output
things exiting the system
What is dynamic equilibrium
when inputs and outputs of a system are balanced
what is feedback
if the equilibrium of a system is upset by a change in one of the elements e.g. the inputs increase but the outputs do not so the size of the stores change
what is positive feedback
where the effects of an action are amplified or multiplied by subsequent knock on effects
what is negative feedback
where the effects of an action are nullified by its subsequent knock on effects
what is the atmosphere
layers of gases surrounding the planet
what is the lithosphere
solid, outer part if earth, includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust, the outermost layers of earths structure
what is the hydrosphere
water that is on surface of planet, undergroud and in air
what is the biosphere
parts of earth where life exists
what is the cryosphere
frozen ice and snow on planet
where is the total global water stored
oceans - 96.6%
other saline - 0.9%
fresh water - 2.5%
where is fresh water stored
glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets - 68.7%
groundwater - 30.1%
surface/other - 1.2%
where is surface water/other fresh water stored
ground ice and permafrost - 69%
lakes - 20.9%
soil water 3.8%
swamps and marshes - 2.67%
rivers - 0.44%
living things - 0.26%
atmosphere - 3%
what season changes occur in the cryosphere
occur through accumulation and ablation
largely affected by climate change
what is accumulation
the addition of material to the store of ice, occurs through snowfall
what is ablation
loss of material from store of ice, occurs through melting evaporation and sublimation
what long term changes occur in the cryosphere
during glacial periods more water is stored in ice
due to expanding of ice stores sea levels were around 120m lower than present and many terrestrial areas experienced a much drier climate than now
last glacial period ended 15,000 years ago
interglacial periods - reduction in the volume of ice on the planet and hydrological cycle behaves far more like it does today
what is a glacial period
interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temps and glacial advances
what is an interglacial period
periods of warmer climate between glacial periods with less ice on planet
what is an holocene epoch
current interglacial period we are in
what is the intertropical convergence zone
sits between two hadley cells
location changes seasonally - furthest south in january and furthest north in july
causes monsoons as it moves into rea of low pressure and rainfall with it
what is global warming
earths climate undergoing changes in response to natural variability
how does global warming affect the water cycle
evaporation rates increase which increases the amount of water circulating through the troposphere
higher water vapor concentration increases frequency and intensity of precipitation events
more precipitation falling as rain rater than snow
what processes affect the hillslope cycle
deforestation
storms
urbanization
farming
seasonal change
how does deforestation affect the hillslope cycle
removal of trees reduces interception and infiltration, overland flow increases
how do storms affect the hillslope cycle
intense rainfall increases the amount of rainfall reaching the ground and increases the magnitude of the stores
how does urbanization affect the hillslope cycle
slope is developed for housing, impermeable surfaces will reduce infiltration. Tress will probably be cut down as well. Water will flow quickly through pipes to nearby river channels
how does farming affect the hillslope cycle
ditches drain the land and encourage water to flow quickly to rivers. Irrigation increases the amount of water on the ground
how does seasonal change affect the hillslope cycle
winter snowfall and frozen ground interrupt the water transfers and affect the magnitude of stores
what is the soil water budget
shows the change in the soil water store over a yearh
how do you calculate soil water budget
rainfall - evapotranspiration
what happens in the wet seasons
precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration
water surplus
ground stores fill with water - more surface runoff, higher discharge = river level rises
what happens in the drier seasons
evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation
ground store depletion
some flows into the river channel but it is not replaced by precipitation
what happens when it goes back to we seasons
deficit of water
ground stores recharge
what are the parts of a drainage basin
source
watershed
tributary
main river channel
confluence
mouth
what is a drainage basin
the area of land drained by a river and its tributaries (when it rains in this area the water finds its way into the river)
what is the watershed
the boundary of the drainage basin, separates one drainage basin from another
what is a confluence
a point where two rivers meet
what is a tributary
a small river or stream that joins a larger river
what is the source of the river
the starting point of a river, often a spring or lake
what is the mouth of the river
the point where a river leaves its drainage basin and flows into the sea
what are the inputs of a drainage basin
precipitation
what are the storage in a drainage basin
surface storage
soil moisture
interception
groundwater
what are the flows of a drainage basin
surface runoff
overland flow
groundwater flow
infiltration
percolation
throughflow
what are the outputs of a drainage basin
evaporation
transpiration
river channel
what physical factors could cause a reduction in output of water from a river basin into a sea over a period of years to occur
reduction in precipitation
reduced melting of glaciers
less evaporation due to cooler temps
what human factors could cause a reduction in output of water from a river basin into a sea over a period of years to occur
building dams
increase in agriculture
greater water abstraction
increased biomass from planting or afforestation
depletion of groundwater stores feeding springs
less transpiration through clearing of biomass leading to reduced precipitation
what physical factors cause an increase in the store of water in underground aquifers over a period of decades to occur
increase in precipitation
more permeable surfaces
increased meltwater
reduction in biomass coverage of surface due to environmental change
what human factors cause an increase in the store of water in underground aquifers over a period of decades to occur
clearing of surface biomass for pasture land
reduced abstraction of water from surface and underground stores
construction of reservoirs and water storage basins
irrigation systems putting water on land from elsewhere
deliberate groundwater recharging strategies with waste water
what is the water balance
balance between inputs and outputs of a system
precipitation = total runoff + evaporation +/- storage
relationship between precipitation evapotranspiration and surface storage
influenced by short and long term factors
what happens is precipitation exceeds runoff and evapotranspiration
positive water balance
amount of water in store increasing
what are the ways that water can get into a river
precipitation
surface runoff
infiltration
throughflow
percolation
groundwater flow
what is surface runoff
when the ground becomes saturated by rainwater, it cannot take anymore water in, any extra flows over the ground
what does how quickly surface runoff occur depend on
antecedant rainfall - rain that has already happened, if the weather was yet yesterday ground is still going to be wet
how permeable the soil is - permeable soil permits water, impermeable soil hard for water to get in
how heavy the rain falls - heavy storm cause more surface runoff
how do urbanisation affect surface runoff
urabnistation - replaces feilds and forests with buildings and concrete surfaces
increase surface runoff and reduces infiltration significantly
10% less evapotranspiration
45% more surface runoff
15% less shallow inflitration
20% less deep infiltration
how does deforestation affect surface runoff
20% less precipitation
20-30% more surface runoff
20% less groundwater
deforestation reduces interception and infiltration of rainwater
there are less trees as obstacles to stop surface runoff
increases surface runoff and reduces infiltration significantly
which characteristics are more likely to cause flooding
small drainage basin
steep basin
high drainage density (lots of streams)
impermeable rock/soil
snow
intense rainfall
prolonged rainfall events
previous rain has fallen
deforested
no dams built on river
area is urbanised
channel is not dredged
what is a storm hydrograph
tells us how fast a river floods after rainfall
what is discharge
amount of water in the river at a given point
what are the parts of a hydrograph
x axis - hours from start of rainstorm
y axis - discharge (cumecs)
rainfall - shown in mm as a bar graph
rising limb
peak flow
recession limb
baseflow
lag time
what is the rising limb
the rising water in the river
what is the peak flow
the maximum amount of discharge within a river
what is the recession limb
the falling floodwater in the river
what is the baseflow
the normal amount of water you would expect within the river
what is the lag time
time difference between the peak of the rain storm and the peak flow of the river
the shorter the lag time the faster the flood occured
what humans factors affect the water cycle
land drainage
land use change
farming practices
water abstraction
what is land drainage
the area of the east Anglia fens and somerset levels were once submerged by water
deep drains and a network of ditches created to move water quickly through the system so the land can be used for farmland
how does land drainage affect the water cycle
more vegetation due to crops grown on farm - interception and transpiration increased, less surface runoff
deep drains and ditches created so infiltration and percolation occur quicker therefore less overland flow
what is land use change
unrbanistation replaces permeable surfaces with impermeable concrete and tarmac
deforestation removes trees from area
how does land use change affect the water cycle
vegetation removed - interception and transpiration reduced
impermeable surfaces ontop of soil - less infiltration of water into soil, less throughflow of water through soil, less percolation of water into rock, less groundwater flow through rock
more overland flow
what are farming practices
ploughing break up soil surfaces
crops will have positive impact on water cycle than livestock
irrigation can cause there to be excess of water on the land
how do farming practices affect the water cycle
increased vegetation - interception and transpiration increased
less infiltration of water due to irrigation so more overland flow
ploughing fields breaks up compact soil allowing for infiltration but also decreased surface runoff as can act as channels - increase throughflow
what is water abstraction
abstraction of water from ground water or rivers for irrigation, industry, domestic purposes
in middle east water being abstracted from aquifers that were formed thousands of years ago and are recharging at a slower rate to consumption
how is water abstraction affecting the water cycle
less groundwater so less groundwater flow through rocks and throughflow through soil
cause a reduction of water in streams and lakes
what physical factors affect the water cycle
Weather - El nino
seasonal changes
Drought
what is El nino
every 6 years roughly warmer water replaces cooler water in easter pacific off coast of south America
direct consequences for local weather pattern and global weather conditions
short term - rainfall patterns become distorted which then affects other stores and transfers
how does el nino affect the water cycle
change rainfall patterns
increase global temps - increase evaporation
makes weather conditions more extreme - wet=wetter, dry=dryer
what are seasonal changes
summer in UK - total rainfall may be less but storms more frequent, vegetation grows rapidly, temps are higher, less saturated soils, lower river flows
Winter in UK - higher rainfall with likelihood of snow, vegetation dies back, lower temps, soils more saturated, high river flows
how do seasonal changes affect the water cycle
summer - increased vegetation - less surface runoff, interception and transpiration increase, less saturated soil rain infiltrates quickly but ground is initially impermeable, higher temp increase rate of evaporation, less saturated soil = more infiltration
winter - reduced vegetation = interception and transpiration decrease, infiltration and overland flow increase, throughflow, percolation, groundwater flow increase, soils more saturated increased overland flow infiltration occur slower, snow falling infiltration occur slower as have to wait for snow to melt, low temp decreases rate of evaporation, higher river flow more likelihood of floods
what are droughts
lack of rainfall over long period of time
Fires are often common due to lack of water available
soils become dried out due to heat and lack of water
how do droughts affect the water cycle
river and lake storage reduced
vegetation destroyed by fires - interception and transpiration reduced
groundwater flow - more important as deep long term storage of water wont be affect by drought
heat and dry air - higher rate of evapotranspiration until soil water dries up
infiltration and surface storage reduced when soils have dried out
what are the transfers of the carbon cycle
erupting volcano
photosynthesis
burning
respiration
diffusion
decomposition
burning fossil fuels
weather and erosion
rock cycle
sinking
what are the stores of the carbon cycle
atmosphere
plants
food web
soil organic carbon
phytoplankton
food web
ocean surface
deep ocean currents
shellfish and corals
deep ocean sediments
sedimentary rocks
coil, oil and gas
what is carbon
most chemically versatile elements
forms more compounds than any other element
found in all life forms as well as sedimentary rocks, diamonds, graphite, coal, oil and gas
what is the science behind carbon
vital in forming large, complex and diverse molecules that characterize living matter
bonding capacity of four allows it to engage in various structurally different bonding arrangements
plays key role in shaping organic molecules.
important to the chemistry of living things because of the versatility of structures it can form with itself and with other atoms.
why is carbon important
4th most abundant element in universe
2014 more than 10 million carbon compounds
find it in the rocks and soil, oils, coal and gas but also in living things
carbon is stored and released affects the chemical make-up of the environment around us.
As this changes so does our planet.
acidity of our oceans and enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect some notable impacts of changing levels of carbon
what are the main stores of carbon
lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
what is a carbon sink
absorbs more carbon than releases
what is a carbon source
releases more carbon than absorbs
what are carbon transfers
process that transfer carbon between the stores
E.g. photosynthesis takes carbon out of the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and converts it to carbohydrates such as glucose
Transfers such as inputs and outputs affect the size of the carbon stores.
what are the ways we find carbon
CO2 - gas found in the atmosphere, soils and oceans
CH4 (methane) - gas found in the atmosphere, oceans, soils and sed. rocks
CaCO3 (calcium) - Solid compound found in rocks, oceans and skeletons
Hydrocarbons - Solid, liquid or gas found in sed. rocks
Bio-molecules - Produced in living things, e.g. fats, oil and DNA
what is the measurement for carbon
gigatonne
1GtC = 1 billion tonnes
Transfer (flux) of carbon within the cycle is measured in gigatons per year (GtC/year)
what are the four main carbon cycles
fast organic
fast non organic
slow organic
slow non organic
what is the fast organic carbon cycle
operates from months to centuries
involves transfer of organic carbon within living things, the atmosphere and the pedosphere
what is the fast non organic carbon cycle
operates from months to centuries
involves ocean-atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide
what is the slow organic carbon cycle
takes hundreds of millions of years involves conversion of organic material into fossil fuels
what is the slow non organic carbon cycle
takes hundreds of millions of years involves conversion of carbon rich sediments into rock within the lithosphere which are eventually recycled through tectonic movements and returned to the atmosphere by volcanic activity
what processes are part of the slow carbon cycle
burial and compaction of animals and plants
chemical weathering
natural carbon sequestration
plate movement
what processes are part of the fast carbon cycle
photosynthesis
volcanic eruptions
combustion of fossil fuels
respiration (release CO2) and digestion (release CH4)
decomposition
wildfires
what are the carbon stores
marine sediments and sedimentary rocks
ocean
fossil fuel deposits
soil organic matter
atmosphere
terrestrial plants
marine sediments and sedimentary rocks
stores 100,000 billion metric tonnes of carbon
largest store of carbon
rock take millions of years to form
ocean
38,000 billion metric tonnes of carbon
oceans very important carbon store
CO2 absorbed directly from air
river water discharges carbon carried in solution
Since industrial revolution, oceans absorbed more CO2 from air due to increased carbon emissions
fossil fuels and deposits
4,000 million metric tonnes of carbon
Hydrocarbons important long term stores of carbon
Since industrial revolution have been exploited for heat and power
resulting combustion has pumped huge amounts of CO2 into atmosphere
soil organic matter
1,500 billion metric tonnes of carbon
Soils contain rotting organic matter
important carbon stores
Carbon can remain in soils for hundreds of years
Deforestation, land use change and soil erosion can release stored carbon very rapidly
atmosphere
750 million metric tonnes of carbon
Carbon held in atmosphere in form of CO2
amount has increased due to power stations, vehicles and deforestation
caused enhanced greenhouse effect
terrestrial plants
560 million metric tonnes of carbon
plants vital for all life on Earth
convert sun’s energy to carbohydrates
can store carbon for years and transfer it to the soil
Deforestation releases back to atmosphere
what was the trend for the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere from 1958-2005 measured by Charles Keeling at Mauna Loa Observatory
KEELING CURVE
steady increase in CO2 levels in atmosphere
regular wobble reflects season growth of trees and plants in the northern hemisphere
during spring and summer, trees and plants absorb carbon when they undergo photosynthesis reducing the amount of carbon in the atmosphere
data was first to confirm the rise of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere caused by the burning of fossil fuels
how much carbon does nature absorb yearly
788 billion tonnes
natural absorption balances out natural emissions
how much carbon to humans emit
over 30 billion metric tonnes of CO2
some being absorbed by the ocean and land plants around half remain in air
human produced CO2 emission have been increasing since industrial revolution
74700 Mt CO2 released by UK 1751-2014
250 years 40% increase CO2 due to humans
what is the overall outcome of carbon levels
limit levels of CO₂ in the atmosphere, so that temp rise limited to no more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels
what would the budget be to achieve this outcome of carbon levels
1 trillion tonnes of carbon
1,000 PgC
what is the idea of the carbon budget
reduce impacts created when dynamic equilibrium is lost
in turn would create a series of positive and negative feedback mechanisms.
what does the global community have to do to stay withing the carbon budget
need to reduce amount of carbon emitted (carbon spending)
increase the amount of carbon stored (carbon savings)
Since Industrial Revolution (1761-1880) amount of carbon dioxide in atmosphere has risen to 515 PgC in 2011 - 52% of budget
what is the greenhouse effect
naturally occurring process where some in infrared radiation passes through atmosphere but most is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules and clouds
effect of this is to warm earths surface and the lower atmosphere
enabled life on planet to exist
without earth 33 degrees Celsius cooler
what happens to the suns radiation as the amount of carbon on the atmosphere increases
less radiation is reflected back into space
more radiation trapped by layer of greenhouse gases in atmosphere = warmer temp
some (roughly same) radiation absorbed by earth
why do the amount of greenhouses gases increase
deforestation
burning fossil fuels
what are the five spheres of carbon stores
hydrosphere
biosphere
atmosphere
cryosphere
lithosphere
what is carbon like in the hydrosphere
Oceanic stores
- surface layer where sunlight penetrates so that photosynthesis can take place - 900GtC, Carbon exchanged rapidly with the atmosphere through both physical processes such as co2 gas dissolving into the water and biological processes such as growth, death and decay of plankton
- The intermediate and deep layer of water - 900GtC
- Living organic matter - 30GtC, dissolved organic matter - 700GtC
Total - 37,000 to 40,000 GtC
When organisms die their dead cells,shells and other parts sink into deep water
Decay releases carbon dioxide into the deep water
Some materials fall right to the bottom where it forms layers of carbon rich sediment
Sediments may turn into rocks over millions of years through chemical and physical processes
Part of carbon cycle can lock carbon for millions of years
Sedimentary layer could store up to 100 million GtC
what is carbon like in the biosphere
Total sum of all living matter
Carbon stored in terrestrial biosphere - 3,170 GtC
Distribution of carbon depends upon the ecosystem
Living vegetation - At the global level - 19% carbon in biosphere stored in plants, Much stored directly in tissue of plants, Amount of carbon in plants biomass varies from 35-65% of the dry weight, Amount varies depending on the vegetation type and location, Estimated half of carbon in forests occur in high latitude forests and one third occurs in low latitude forests, Two largest forest reservoirs of carbon are in Russia hold roughly 25% of the worlds forest carbon and the amazon basin which holds roughly 20%
Plant litter - Fresh undecomposed and easily recognizable plant debris, type of litter directly affected by type of ecosystem, Leaf tissues account for about 70% of litter in forests - woody litter tends to increase with forest age, grasslands very little above ground perennial tissue so the annual fall of leaf litter is very low, Can be released overtime via decomposition
Soil humus- Originates from litter decomposition, thick brown or black substance that remains after most organic litter decomposed, Gets dispersed throughout the soil by soil organisms such as earthworms, all forests approximately 31% of the carbon stored in the biomass and 69% in the soil, tropical forests around 50% carbon stored is stored in the biomass and 50% in the soil, Worlds soils hold more carbon (2,500GtC) than vegetation, Soil carbon either organic (1,550GtC) or inorganic (950GtC), Inorganic carbon component consists of carbon as well as a carbonate materials such as calcite, dolomite and gypsum, Amount of carbon found in living plants and animals (560GtC) small compared to that found in soil, Soil carbon pool 3.1 times larger than atmospheric pool of 800 GtC
Peat- Accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter unique to peatlands/mires, Peat form in wetland conditions where almost permanent water saturation obstructs flows of oxygen from the atmosphere into the ground, Creates low oxygen anaerobic conditions that slow down rates of plant litter decomposition, Peatlands cover 4 million km2 or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet - occur on all continents, Peat stores estimated to store 250GtC worldwide
What is carbon like in the atmosphere
Contains approximately 750GtC
Majority in the form of CO2, smaller amounts of methane and other compounds
Carbon in atmosphere - great importance due to influence on greenhouse effect and climate
Relatively small atmospheric carbon pool makes it sensitive to disruptions caused by an increase in sources or sinks of carbon from the earth’s other pool
Carbon in atmosphere measure in parts per million
Deforestation and fossil fuel combustion have added too this store
CO2 concentration measured of 440 ppm - pre industrial revolution levels of less that 280 ppm
What is carbon like in the cryosphere
2 potential sources of carbon in the form of methane
Methyl clathrates - molecules of methane that are frozen into ice crystals, Molecules under high pressure and low temperature deep in the earth or underwater, if temp or pressure changes ice that contains the methane will break and the methane will escape
Organic matter frozen in permafrost - dead plants and animals have been frozen deep in permafrost for thousands of years, Carbon is locked up due to being frozen, Global warming melt permafrost and organic matter will decay, this will release carbon dioxide or methane into the atmosphere
Estimated 1,400 GtC of frozen carbon in permafrost
what is carbon like in the lithosphere
Includes crust and uppermost mantle - hard and rigid outer layer of earth
Carbon stored in both inorganic and organic forms, Inorganic - fossil fuels e.g. coal,oil,gas, oil shale and carbonate based sedimentary deposits e.g. limestone, Organic forms - litter, organic matter and humic substances found in soils
Distributed between stores, Marine sediments and sedimentary rocks - contain up to 100 million GtC, Soil organic matter - contains between 1,500 and 1,600 GtC, Fossil fuel deposits of coal, oil and gas - contain approximately 4,100 GtC, Peat (dead but undecayed organic matter) - contains approximately 250GtC
what are the transfers of carbon to and from the atmosphere
CO2 released into through respiration by living organisms, volcanic eruptions, weathering, and human activity
removed by dissolution into water and through photosynthesis by plants
CH4 released through animal emissions, decomposition, burning of fossil fuels
what are the transfers of carbon to and from the biosphere
Organisms gain carbon by extracting it from CO2 in atmosphere through photosynthesis, or consuming other organisms and therefore receiving their carbon
Carbon remains in organism until it decomposes sufficiently to release carbon to the atmosphere or lithosphere
what are the transfers of carbon to and from the hydrosphere
Dissolved organic carbon in surface layers rapidly exchanged with atmosphere because they are constantly in contact with each other
what are the transfers of carbon to and from the cryosphere
plants and animals which are in the process of decomposing are trapped in the permanently frozen soil.
permafrost thaws, frozen organic matter inside it will thaw and begin to decay
As organic matter decays, it gets eaten up and digested by microbes
The bacteria that eat it produce carbon dioxide or methane as waste
If there is oxygen available, microbes make CO2
When permafrost carbon turns into methane, it bubbles up through soil and water, other microorganisms eat some of it, some methane makes it to the surface and escapes into the air, if no oxygen available, they make methane.
what are the transfers of carbon in and out of the lithosphere
Carbon leave soil through soil respiration – releases CO2, or by erosion – can carry it into rivers or ocean, where it enters hydrosphere
If rock is subducted into the Earth’s mantle, it will melt, and CO2 it contained is released into atmosphere via subsequent volcanic eruptions
Alternatively, the extraction and burning of fossil fuels by human activity can release carbon into the atmosphere.
how does carbon move between the stores
movement a “flux” as it moves from one store to another. The movement from one pool to another happen though many different fluxes leads to different stores.
Fluxes: photosynthesis
respiration
litterfall
ocean-atmosphere exchange
burning fossil fuels
deforestation and other land use changes
geological processes
how does carbon move by photosynthesis
plants use energy from the sunlight, carbon dioxide from atmosphere and water to create carbohydrates.
means carbon transferred into biosphere
example of carbon sequestration - carbon removed from atmosphere and stored in biosphere for long periods
how does carbon move between stores by respiration
all organisms respire, process occurs with plants, animals and soils
Plants release carbon back into atmosphere, it occurs as by-product as plants are using their energy stored in carbohydrates
Soil full of organic matter, As it decomposes, it releases carbon into atmosphere, process can take months or many years
how does carbon move between stores by litterfall
Living plants shed leaves which decompose into soil
Different ecosystems experience this in different volumes and timescales
e.g. rainforest - lots of litter, climate means that it rapidly decomposes, although lots of carbon will be released, lots will be taken up by plants during photosynthesis.
how doe carbon move between stores by ocean-atmosphere exchange
carbon absorbed by ocean and released from ocean through diffusion
Once CO2 dissolved it reacts with water as a carbonate reaction - water and carbon combine to form carbonic acid
carbonate helps marine life to build shells and form skeleton of coral reefs
The oceans, lakes and ponds are important as they absorb and ‘lock away’ over a quarter of CO2 that humans emit into atmosphere
process by which absorb and lock away the CO2 known as sequestration
occurs due to: Carbon dioxide being soluble and dissolving directly in water
Phytoplankton perform photosynthesis which absorbs CO2, trapping carbon within their biomass, this sequestering plays important role in removing carbon dioxide from atmosphere. As CO2 levels in atmosphere rise, likely that more would be sequestered in the oceans, rivers and ponds.
how does carbon move between the stores by burning fossil fuels
release carbon into atmosphere
one of the fast fluxes of carbon
Coal, oil and natural gas all contain carbon which is released when burnt
Since industrial revolution societies mining and burning fossil fuels at an increasingly rapid rate, means that the flux involved is very fast, although the carbon that is sequestered into the atmosphere in this way may remain in the atmosphere for many years.
how does carbon moved between stores by deforestation and other land use changes
urbanisation, agricultural practices, mining and logging all led to the degradation of the rainforest
Forests contain much carbon in plants, animals, soils
sinks are not replaced meaning areas will also affect the local atmospheric volumes
areas of afforestation can represent a new sink being formed
Currently isn’t enough to balance out the losses that have already taken place
how does carbon move between stores by geological processes
part of the slow carbon cycle - takes millions of years
Sediments accumulate in layers at bottom of oceans, trapping organic matter within deposits, over millions of years layers of sediment build up trapping carbon
may be sequestered through extracting of fossil fuels or brought to the earth’s surface through tectonic processes as the rocks are melted at subduction margins and then carbon is emitted during volcanic eruptions
Weathering also a key process that moves carbon around
Chemical weathering dissolves carbon in water, and physical weathering may break down sedimentary rocks moving carbon from solid state to soils, or into the oceanic system to be deposited on the ocean floor.
what natural variation in carbon cycles can be caused by wildfires
Wildfires can start naturally by lighting strikes
increasingly they are started deliberately by people
Despite being restricted to tiny parts of the earth’s surface, wildfires can have regional impacts
1997-8 and 2013 huge fires in Indonesia that burned out of control for months, smoke from these fires spread across parts of southeast asia affecting lives of millions of people.
fires released a large quantity of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, causing a noticeable spike in the rising trend of carbon emissions recorded since the late 1960s
Wildfires can turn forces from being a carbon sink to being a carbon source, as combustion returns huge quantities of carbon back into the atmosphere.
what natural variation in carbon cycle is caused by volcanic activity
Volcanic activity returns to the atmosphere carbon that has been trapped for millions of years in rocks within the earth’s crust
During paleozoic era (542 - 251 million years ago) volcanoes much more active than they are today, vast amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere, where it remained for a very long time
present, volcanoes emit between 130 and 380 million tonnes of CO2 per year
human activities emit about 30 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year, mainly burning fossil fuels
Volcanoes also erupt lava, which contains silicates that will slowly weather. This converts carbon dioxide in the air to carbonates in solution. In this way carbon dioxide is absorbed very very slowly from the atmosphere
White Island volcano, New Zealand, measured 705 ± 89 tonnes/day of carbon dioxide (CO2) on December 6 2022. It recently had an eruption in 2019, and so CO2 numbers have been declining ever since.
what is the human impacts in carbon cycle from hydrocarbon fuel extraction and burning
Combustion of fossil fuels, fossil fuels are natural sources of energy formed from the remains of living organisms mainly plants, are very important long-term carbon stores - carbon locked away within the remains of organic matter, currently most of our gas and oil extracted from rocks that are 70-100 million years old, carbon has remained locked up in these deposits but when burnt to generate energy and power the stored carbon is released mainly as CO2 into the atmosphere, accelerating the cycling of carbon
fossil fuels are mainly composed of carbon and hydrogen hence the term hydrocarbons
methane is the main component of natural gas
methanes chemical formula is CH4
oil (petroleum) is a more complex compound comprising: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
Sulphur as well as other impurities, when combustion occurs reactions take place with oxygen releasing CO2 and H2O
CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
since industrial revolution, fossil fuels have been burnt more frequently
once CO2 is in the atmosphere it enhances the greenhouse effect, increasing global temperatures
since the late 1950s CO2 in the atmosphere has been measured by the Hawaiian Volcanic Observatory
research shows a worrying increase in levels of atmospheric CO2
what is the human impact on carbon cycle from farming practices
Ploughing and harvesting, rearing livestock, using machinery fuelled by fossil fuels and using fertilisers based on fossil fuels release carbon
farms use of artificial fertilisers is main source of carbon emissions
Methane potent greenhouse gas and some farming practices result in high level of methane emissions
Livestock, especially cattle, ruminate (regurgitate food and masticate a second time) which produces methane as a by product
raised issues worldwide about the desirability of moving away from high dependance on meat and dairy products
Cattle in the USA emit around 5.5 million tonnes of methane per year into the atmosphere - around 20% of methane emissions in the USA
Methane also produced from the cultivation of rice
rice may contribute up to 20% of global methane production
Research in Asia and north America - rice yields have increased by 25% due to the increases levels of carbon dioxide in the air
turned into 40% increase in methane emissions
Rice primary food source for 50% of world’s population mostly in developing regions so trend is likely to continue
what is the human impact in carbon cycle from deforestation
Trees removed by burning or felling, for building, ranching, mining or growing commercial crops such as oil palm and soya, timber itself is a valuable product in the production of furniture and other wood products. Forests are also harvested for firewood.
Deforestation is widespread across the world, is particularly concentrated in tropical regions eg. Indonesia. total - accounts for 20% of all global carbon dioxide emissions.
natural system, when a tree dies it decomposes very slowly and releases carbon over a long period of time. During that time, new vegetation starts to grow that quickly compensates for carbon being released by dead tree - the system is carbon neutral. When deforestation by burning occurs, carbon immediately released into atmosphere. If land is then used for a different purpose, such as grassland for cattle ranching, future absorption of carbon dioxide will be reduced. The system has now become a source of carbon rather than a sink. This is extremely significant in terms of the carbon cycle both globally and regionally, as forest ecosystems are limited to certain regions of the world.
what is the human impact on carbon cycle from land use change
responsible for about 10% of carbon release globally
impacts on relatively short-term stores
has direct links to issues of climate change and global warming
local scale - land-use change has significant impact on small-scale carbon cycles
what happens both in the carbon cycle and the water cycle
carbon dioxide and water vapor released from volcanoes, industry, trees, deforestation, respiration
carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater to become carbonic acid
how does climate change have affects on water and carbon cycles
affects terrestrial and marine ecosystems
has impacts on water and carbon cycles then feeds back to the climate
what do humans have an influence on which leads to impact on the climate, through the energy, water and carbon cycles
vegetation
what impacts vegetation
changes in carbon dioxide and changes in climate
what causes effects on ecosystems and how they function
elevated CO2 and other global changes e.g. climate change, nitrogen deposition and biodiversity loss
what can extreme weather events cause
long lasting impacts on vegetation and the carbon and water cycles
how are water stores/ transfers vital to life
ocean - store of water, food, water vapor evaporates causing condensation and rainfall which can be drunk used to water vegetation and irrigation
ice - habitat for animals, insulates the ocean which supports marine life and increases the albedo affect
evapotranspiration - allows plants to complete photosynthesis, prevents oversaturation of soil which reduces flood risks
rivers - source of water/food, used a leisure activities e.g. watersports, habitat for wildlife
groundwater - aquifers relied on during a drought
how are carbon stores/ transfers vital to life
ocean - carbon sink, sedimentary rock dissolves carbon less global warming, habitat for aquatic life
vegetation - photosynthesis allowing for crops to grow
volcano burning (combustion) - releases carbon dioxide and water vapor
crude oil - provides energy for life e.g. cars, planes
ice - store of carbon which can decrease the amount in the atmosphere,increases albedo affect
precipitation - dissolved co2 from atmosphere bringing it down to marine/ terrestrial ecosystems
sedimentary rock - stores carbon so less int the atmosphere so less global warming
how do carbon and water cycles interact in the atmosphere to influence climate
increasing concentration of co2 in atmosphere enhances greenhouse affect
trapping of long wave radiation increases global temp
causes positive feedback- more evaporation increases water vapor
will have a multiplier effect for environment and people
knock on effects are both positive and negative feedback
what does raising temperatures lead to
higher rates of evaporation and evapotranspiration
warmer air can hold more moisture - create clouds, more intense precipitation
more cloud cover increase albedo of planet leading to negative feedback - dismissed this idea - intensification of water cycle could mean that clouds dissipate quicker
clouds are containing less ice crystals ehich make them less reflective
what does increased amount of precipitation lead to
reduce amount of snow cover
albedo would decrease
absorption of suns energy into darker surfaces would increase
how would changes in evaporation and precipitation affect the water cycle
affect the drainage basin sub systems - increased input due to higher levels of precipitation would influence the flows, transfers and discharge, intensification of precipitation cause more rapid runoff less storage and movement of water as throughflow and groundwater flow, some areas more susceptible to flooding and drought, areas could become more lush reducing seasonal extremes in water balance
increased output due to higher levels of evaporation and evapotranspiration areas would experience a moisture deficit the influence the movement of water but also impact upon the carbon cycle through changes in vegetation
how does chnages in precipitation impact the carbon cycle
increased moisture as water cycle intensifies enourages vegetation growth halping to regulate levels of co2 in atmosphere - negative feedback
increased drought conditions lead to decrease vegetation exposing more soil releasing stored carbon
areas forecasted to experience increased precipitation larger than areas expected to experience defect
land use, human interactions and other factors could complicate
what is carbon capture and sequestration
transfer of carbon from the atmosphere to other stores
Uses technology to capture CO2 emissions from industry and coal-fired stations CO2 is then transported to a site where it can be stored to prevent it from entering the atmosphere
scientists estimate this could cut global carbon emissions by 19%
how does carbon capture and sequestration work
Once the CO2 is captured, the carbon gas is compressed and transported through a pipeline to an injection well
It is then injected as a liquid into suitable geological reservoirs such as underground aquifiers and deposits of fossil fuels
what are the advantages of carbon capture and sequestration
global carbon emissions - CCS means that there will be less global carbon emissions as a whole, as much of the carbon dioxide emitted will be captured and then stored. Therefore, it is likely that there will be a decrease in the rates of global warming and climate change.
deforestation - By capturing much of the carbon dioxide emitted by deforestation, less will reach the atmosphere, meaning that there will be a decrease in the rate of the greenhouse effect and therefore likewise in climate change as deforestation accounts for around 20% of annual greenhouse gas emissions.
agriculture - By capturing and storing carbon and therefore, reducing the potential risks and rate of climate change, agriculture will be significantly benefited, as there may be less chance of drought and famine. But, by taking advantage of CCS, farmers can also improve the health of their soils and can make their crops more resilient to climate change by implementing methods such as agroforestry, crop rotation and stopping the use of tilling so that carbon can be sequestered back into stores.
Creates jobs
Can provide energy security
Mitigates climate change
Supports renewable energy sources
Could be converted into fuels
what are the disadvanatage of carbon capture and sequestration
volcanic activities - Similarly to tectonic shift, volcanic activity may be triggered due to changing stresses on tectonic plates and geological formations as seismic activity and earthquakes can potentially spur volcanic eruptions. However, volcanic eruptions are more frequently caused by a buildup of gases within the volcano or, the accumulation of magma causing intense pressure and eventually a volcanic eruption. Magma is formed by the melting of the rocks in the Earth’s lithosphere, often at a destructive plate boundary, which can be triggered by induced seismic activity due to the injection of CO2 into geological reservoirs.
tectonic shift - Tectonic shifts can occur when the carbon is injected into the geological reservoirs as there may be increasing and changing stress experienced, inducing seismic activity. The volume of CO2 injected at a time can also lead to the movement of tectonic plates.
Is incredibly expensive
Requires specialist equipment and specialised personnel to carry out
Is energy intensive
Can only be done on a limited scale
Potential harmful health impacts
is carbon capture and sequestration successful
In 2014 Boundary Dam in Canada became the world’s first commercial carbon capture coal-fired power plant.
Aims to cut CO2 emissions by 90% by trapping CO2 underground before it reaches the atmosphere The state-owned electricity provider expects to
reduce rgeenhouse gas emissions by about 1 million tons a year = 250 000 cars
As of 2021, the global capture capacity was estimated at 40 million tonnes per year across 26 operational CCS facilities
According to the North Sea Transition
Authority, CCS is vital to the UK to achieve net zero as the government aims to capture and store 20-30 million tonnes of CO2 per year by 2030
CCS projects typically target 90% efficiency, meaning that 90% of the CO2 from the power plant will be captured and stored
what is changing rural land use
improving carbon stores by ensuring that carbon inputs to the soil are greater that carbon outputs from it
different strategies depending on land use soil properties, climate and land area
e.g.
grasslands
croplands
forest and tree crops
why is rural land use changed into grasslands
offer a global greenhouse mitigation potential of 810 million tonnes of CO2 (within the period up to 2030).
Soil carbon storage improved by:
Avoidance of overstocking of grazing animals
Adding manures and fertilisers that have a direct impact on soil organic carbon levels through the added organic material
Revegetation of improved pasture species and legumes, increasing productivity and resulting on more plant litter and underground biomass, adding to the soil organic carbon levels
Irrigation and water management can improve plant productivity and the production of soil organic matter
Some estimate that grasslands hold 15-30% of the world’s carbon within their soil!
why is rural land use changed into croplands
There are multiple techniques for increasing the soil organic carbon in croplands, including:
Mulching is when you add a thick layer of organic matter on the soil’s surface, and additionally it can prevent carbon losses from the system (if crop residues are used)
Reduced or no tillage (ploughing + harrowing) helps to avoid the accelerated decomposition of organic matter and depletion of soil carbon. It also prevents the structural deterioration of the soil, through the breakdown of aggregates that protect carbon
Some use of animal manure or chemical fertilisers can increase plant productivity and therefore soil organic carbon
Rotation of cash crops (a crop grown to sell for profit) or the use of cover crops and green manures, which can all increase the biomass returned to soil
Using improved crop varieties to increase productivity on the surface and within the soil, as well as increasing crop residues and therefore increasing soil organic carbon
why is rural land use changed into forest and tree crops
Forests act as carbon sinks by storing large amounts of carbon both above and below ground. Therefore we need to:
Protect existing forests in order to preserve current soil carbon stocks
Reforest degraded lands and increase tree density in degraded forests in order to increase biomass density and therefore carbon density, both above and below ground
Plant trees in croplands (silviculture) and preserve orchards in order to store more carbon within the trees and soil
Globally, each year, forests absorb nearly 16 billion metric tonnes of CO2, and currently hold 861 gigatonnes of carbon within the trees and soil.
what is the case study for changing rural land use
Liangdu Afforestation Project in China
A large scale initiative located in a mountainous region in the Guizhou Province in China
Aims to transform barren land into forests by planting native species
The project spans 23,720 hectares in a region that historically suffers from desertification
Over the next 29 years, the project is expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 10,077,450 tonnes of CO2 equivalent (tCO2e)
The project is expected to have an average annual greenhouse gas removal of 347,498 tCO2e
what are the advantages of grasslands
UK grasslands store two billion tonnes of carbon in their soils
Adding manures or fertilisers: direct impact on soil organic carbon (SOC) through the added organic material, produces plant productivity and stimulates soil biodiversity
Revegetation: especially using improved pasture species and legumes, can increase productivity leading to more plant litter and underground biomass, adding to the SOC stock
Irrigation: and water management can improve productivity and the production of SOM
what are the disadvantages of grasslands
They often require some kind of human maintenance eg, mowing, weeding, most grasslands would not be privately owned so would require money from local authorities to manage or volunteers to help
They can be used in ways that arguably benefit society more (housing, parking, offices…)
what are the adavantages of croplands
Mulching can add to organic matter. If crop residues are used, mulching also prevents carbon losses from the system
Reduced or no tillage (plowing and harrowing) avoids the accelerated decomposition of organic matter and depletion of soil carbon that can otherwise occur. Reduced tillage also prevents the break-up of soil aggregates that protect carbon
Some uses of animal manure or chemical fertilizers can produce plant productivity and so SOC
Rotation of cash crops with pasture or the use of cover crops and green manures, have the potential to increase biomass returned to the soil
Using improved crop varieties to increase productivity above and below ground, as well as increasing crop residues, so enhancing SOC
what are the disadvanatages of croplands
It will take a lot of influence and persuasion to encourage farmers to change their techniques especially if it may result in reduced yields
Changing farming techniques requires money, not all farmers can afford to change their ways of production, so not an accessible technique for everyone
what are the advantages of forest and tree crops
Forests are able to lower CO2 emissions to the atmosphere by storing large amounts of carbon both above and below ground
Protection of existing forests will preserve current soil carbon stocks
Reforesting degraded lands and increasing tree density of degraded forests increase biomass density and so carbon density, above and below ground
Trees in crop lands and orchards can store carbon above and below ground. CO2 emissions can be lowered if they are grown as a renewable source of fuel
what are the disadvantages of forest and tree crops
Takes trees along time to grow
A lot of reforestation and afforestation will be required to make a big impact on climate change
Planting trees requires time and money
what is an evaluation of changing rural land use to help mitigate climate change
These land use changes will only have a big impact on climate change if it is done on a large scale. Additionally, it will take a few years before we can tell how successful these techniques are at removing CO2 from the atmosphere. However, if more and more people adopt these strategies and techniques, then they will be very successful at mitigating climate change.
what are improved transport practices
making transport more sustainable and efficient and it is happening all across the world in industries such as aviation, rail and road.
focusing on London, there have been many transport improvements over the last 10 years, the main ones being in rail and road transport
London is transitioning to an entirely zero emission bus fleet, attempting to have all buses meet or exceed the ULEZ emission standards
ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zone) charge introduced in 2019 to central London means that cars who do not meet the emission standards will be charged, encouraging the use of cleaner vehicles
additionally a congestion charge is in place for cars travelling during peak times to try and deter any unnecessary journeys
all passenger rail services operated by TfL are electrically powered, with the goal of having zero-carbon emissions by 2030
are improved transport practices successful at mitigating climate change
The Mayor of London aims for there to be an entirely zero emission bus fleet by 2030 and is determined to make London’s taxis and private hire vehicles the greenest in the world.
As of today:
➪1,500 buses
➪Over half of the 15,000 black cabs (In 2021 it was only 3,500)
➪One third of London’s private hire vehicles
are zero emissions capable. However the Mayor aims to increase these until it applies to all methods of transport in London. There are around 7000 buses, 7000 taxis and ⅔ of private hire vehicles yet to become zero emissions within the next 5 years.
what are the advantages of improved transport practices
reduced pollution and improved air quality
➪ the shift towards electric vehicles and public transport significantly reduces emissions, leading to cleaner air and improved public health
➪ this is particularly important in densely populated urban areas like London, where air pollution can have a major impact on respiratory health
✰reduced congestion and improved traffic flow
➪ Initiatives like the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) and the Congestion Charge discourage car use in central London, leading to reduced traffic congestion
✰environmental sustainability
➪ improved transport practices contribute to mitigating climate change and achieving sustainability goals
✰ economic benefits
➪ The development of sustainable transport infrastructure also creates jobs in sectors like renewable energy and manufacturing.
what are the disadvantages of improved transport practices
Whilst improving transport in London is a positive thing for the environment, it also comes with difficulties:
✰ Implementing new infrastructure (cycles lanes, electric vehicle charging stations) is expensive
✰ Switching to green vehicles requires lots of investment
✰ The necessary construction work will disrupt traffic slow and inconvenience residents and workers
✰ The benefits won’t be applicable to all of those in London and will more impact people living in central
✰ Development of new transport could potentially lead to gentrification and current residents could be displaced
what are some protection methods of mangroves
Preventing infrastructure - government can design riverfront structures such as jetties or boat ramps to avoid or minimise impacts to mangroves
Preventing human activity - disallow the public to walk or travel to close to the mangroves on boat. Also implement strict littering and waste precautions to eliminate it all ending up in the mangroves or chemicals making waters toxic.
Reforestation projects - NGOs such as WWF help local communities replant mangroves into the soils.
what is an example of mangrove protection
The mangrove reforestation project was started in 1989 in the province of Aklan, central philippines.
It had hires 30 local families to plant 50 hectares of mangroves in the mudflats of the adjoining villages. It offered to pay people 7 centavos (about 4 U.S cents) per mangrove plant.
Three decades since this, the initial 50 hectares has expanded to 220 hectares and is now considered a major tourist attraction. In 2019 prior to the covid-19 pandemic, the mangrove forest registered 38,455 foreign and local tourists.
Not only this but the regenerated mangrove forest has shielded nearby villages from the worst impacts of Typhoon Fengshen in 2008 and Typhoon Haiyan in 2013.
1918 - 500,000 hectares of mangroves
1994- 120,000 hectares of mangroves
2024 - 250,000 hectares of mangroves
what are the advantages of protecting mangroves
Acts as a natural barrier - Mangroves reduced the impact of water surges during the 2013 typhoon haiyan and prevent erosion.
Absorb more carbon dioxide than other forests and fix it into the soil where it is stored for hundreds of years (carbon sink) - This reduced the amount of carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere
Do not burn due to swampy environment and lack of fuel - In hot climates, especially in places such as florida which are susceptible to wildfires, this will significantly reduce the damage to vegetation and animal habitats.
Provides home for animals - Mangroves are a hotspot for biodiversity and good stopovers for migratory birds. As well as this that provide breeding, nursing and feeding ground for fish (including sharks), shrimps, crabs and other aquatic species.
what are the disadvantages of protecting mangroves
Illegal fishing and trespassing of non-residents- due to the increase in biodiversity mangroves bring many fishers. These illegal fishers has established fish pens within the mangrove area, they do this during the cover of night.
Reduce boat mooring - fishermen often use the mudlands to moor their boats, however with the increase in mangrove planting this has become limited and as a result has a negative effect on the fishing community
what is an evaluation of protecting mangroves and how they help mitigate the impact of climate change
Mangrove reforestation projects are successful at mitigating the effects of climate change. The mangroves have allowed communities to stay safe from typhoons, and as typhoons are now becoming more frequent and more hazardous due to climate change the protection of the mangroves will be relied upon even more to keep communities safe.
The increased number of mangroves can also increase the carbon captured and stored by the mangroves helping to decrease the amount in the atmosphere in the short term but also in the long term as the carbon is locked up in the soil that the mangroves grow in making them very valuable carbon skins.
what is the paris agreement
The Paris Agreement (global scale) is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015. It entered into force on 4 November 2016.
Its overarching goal is to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.”
what is the action plan of the paris agreement
The agreement set out an action plan:
Aim to limit the average global temperature increase to 1.5 degrees celsius , above pre-industrial levels
Meet every five years to set more ambitious targets
Report to each other and the public on implementation of their individual plans to reduce emissions
Strengthen the ability to adapt and be resilient in dealing with the impacts of climate change
Provide adaptation support for developing countries
Developed nations will continue to support initiatives in developing countries aimed at reducing emissions and building in resilience to the impacts of climate change
what are the advantages of the paris agreement
The Paris Agreement provides a durable framework guiding the global effort for decades to come. It marks the beginning of a shift towards a net-zero emissions world. Implementation of the Agreement is also essential for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.
What are the disadvantages of the paris agreement
Big countries eg. The USA has the power to withdraw when under the power of a different political leader which can affect the stability of the whole organisation. The agreement also however does not have the ability to force a country to reduce emissions.
Since the Paris agreement was set up, low-carbon solutions and new markets have already been established and an increasing number of countries have been establishing carbon neutrality targets. As well as this , zero-carbon solutions are becoming more competitive across economic sectors , representing 25% of emissions. This is seen prominently in power and transport sectors, creating many new business opportunities for early mover. It is thought that by 2030 , zero- carbon solutions could be competitive in sectors representing over 70% of global emissions. However, a big problem is the control that large co2 emitters such as the USA have over the total success of the agreement.
what is a case study for the paris agreement
government policies in brazil
In 2005 the government of Brazil decided to slash the rate of deforestation by 80%. Landowners are now required to preserve 80% of virgin forest. Infringements are punished by large fines or imprisonment.
Grants for agricultural enterprises are prohibited in areas where deforestation is taking place and farmers are encouraged to be more productive with the land they use. The government has created protected reserves in the Amazon along frontier areas where deforestation has started.
So far, Brazil has reduced deforestation by 70% and, as a result, has reduced its carbon emissions more than any other country in the world.
what is renewable energy
Renewable energy is energy produced from natural sources that are replenished faster than they are used. They emit little to no greenhouse gases and pollutants when used.
Renewable energies are a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, which are a nonrenewable resource and produce harmful greenhouse gas emissions when burnt. These include Carbon dioxide and methane which contribute to global warming and climate change.
Examples of renewable energies that can be utilised are solar, wind,
geothermal, hydropower and biomass.
Currently hydropower is the largest source of renewable energy
globally, it uses the energy of water moving from higher to lower
elevations.
Renewables are actually now cheaper in most countries than fossil fuels and generate three times more jobs
what are the advantages of renewable energy
cheapest power option in the world today - cost of electricity from solar power fell by 85% between 2010 and 2020. Will make this option more accessible to low and middle income countries where most of the additional demand for new electricity will come from
Cheap renewable energy sources could provide 65% of the world’s total electricity supply by 2030, decarbonising 90% of the power sector by 2050, which will hugely help to mitigate climate change
>13 million deaths around the world yearly are due to avoidable environmental causes such as air pollution, originating mainly from the burning of fossil fuels. Switching to clean energy sources eg wind and solar would help with minimising air pollution and improving health globally
Renewable energy creates jobs - an estimated 14 million new jobs would be created in clean energy
what are the disadvantages of renewable energy
high upfront costs - renewable energy can save money in the long term however initial costs can be expensive
Location and landmass requirements - renewable energy such as solar farms require unobstructed sunlight, wind farms require open spaces. Can often require more space than traditional power stations. ICF climate center states that large-scale renewable energy installations require 10 times more land than coal and natural gas power plants.
Renewable energy generation is vulnerable to weather conditions - solar power to cloudy days, hydropower to droughts and wind power to calm days. Therefore guaranteeing the amount of energy produced at given times is difficult
Carbon footprint and waste - manufacturing, installation and transportation of renewable energy often produces greenhouse gas emissions, and things such as wind turbine blades and solar panels can take up space in landfills.
what is a case study of renewable enrgy
Dogger Bank wind farm
World’s largest offshore wind energy project in construction.
Located 130-190 km from the North east coast of England
Expected to be completed by 2026, generating enough electricity to power 6 million households across the UK
277 wind turbines
Investment of £9 billion
Estimated 3,000 wind energy jobs created to support the construction and operations of the renewable energy project
what is a failed case study of renewable energy
normandy solar road
Proven a failure after 2 years of operation (first opened in 2016), with the road only producing around half of the power originally estimated, and engineering issues leading to 100m of the road falling into disrepair and being demolished.
High volume of traffic was a large contributing factor to both issues, as objects such as cars pass over the solar panels preventing sunlight from hitting them.
Falling leaves had been reported to cause similar disruptions, highlighting the fragility of the technology used.
Cost €5m (£4.2m) to construct the 1km route
what is an evaluation of renewable energy and how it helps mitigate the effects of climate change
pros: Renewable energy has become the cheapest power option globally. Seven countries produce almost 100% of their electricity from renewable sources.It has become one of the most accessible energy sources worldwide, due to how cheap it has become as well as providing millions of job opportunities and incomes.
- Dogger bank wind farm will power 6 million households
Cons: Renewable energy does however have some drawbacks, such as a high upfront cost for set up as well as regular maintenance fees. Depending on the type it may also require a large amount of open land for infrastructure, this can reduce land availability for other uses like farming and recreation.
- £4.2 million used to construct failed Normandy solar road
Overall, renewable energy is a good solution for mitigating climate change. Transitioning
to wider, more global use of more sustainable resources will help to counteract and
drastically reduce greenhouse emissions which will hopefully promote a negative
feedback loop to counteract global warming in the future.
what is geoengineering
It is the deliberate large - scale intervention in the Earth’s natural system to counteract climate change.
Purpose - To mitigate the effects of global warming by either reducing greenhouse gases or reflecting solar radiation away from the Earth
what are the types of geoengineering
solar radiation
Aims to reflect a small percentage of the sun’s light and heat back into space.
Techniques:
Stratospheric Aerosol Injection - Spraying sulfate aerosols into the stratosphere to reflect sunlight (similar to volcanic eruptions).
Marine Cloud Brightening - Spraying seawater to whiten clouds, increasing their reflectivity (albedo).
Space Reflectors - Placing reflective objects in space to deflect sunlight.
ADV - Reduces the intensity of tropical cyclones
Slows soil moisture decline
Slight reduction in atmospheric Co2 concentrations
DIS - The technology required for space - based geoengineering is highly complex and not yet fully developed.
Unintended warming or excessive cooling due to uncertainty in estimates of the amount of SRM needed
Cause changes in volume of regional precipitation
carbon dioxed removal
Aims to remove CO2 from the atmosphere to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations.
Techniques:
Afforestation/Reforestation - Planting trees to absorb carbon dioxide.
Bioenergy with Carbon Capture & Storage - Using biomass for energy and capturing the resulting carbon dioxide.
Direct Air Capture - Machines extracting CO₂directly from the air and storing it underground.
Ocean Fertilisation - Adding nutrients to the ocean to boost phytoplankton growth which absorbs CO₂.
ADV - Directly reduces greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Can have long-term benefits for climate stability
DIS - Technologically challenging and expensive
Slow to implement and achieve significant results
Potential ecological impacts ( eg ocean fertilisers can affect marine ecosystems)
is geoengineering successful
It is successful in reducing the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere however the technology is advanced and expensive, therefore is only available for more developed countries. The technology is still developing so cannot act on a large-scale yet.
The SPICE project in the UK demonstrated the technical feasibility of delivering particles to the stratosphere but raised significant ethical and governance concerns. The project involved a budget of approximately £182,000, with £85,000 funded by Sciencewise-ERC.
how does geoengineering remove co2
It is successful in removing CO2 from the atmosphere but it may change precipitation patterns as well as cause disruptions to regional climates.
The Illinois Industrial CCS Project in the USA captured CO2 emissions and stored them underground. The project has captured and stored several thousand tons of CO2, but scaling up to gigaton levels would require significant investment and infrastructure development.
Overall: Geoengineering has proven to reduce CO2 concentrations but has caused problems such as ethical and political concerns, as well as being a expensive solution
