Water Flashcards
1
Q
What is the hydrological cycle?
A
Circulation of water
2
Q
What is a store in the hydrological cycle?
A
Where water is held in a state of solid, liquid or gas for a long period of time
3
Q
What is flux or flow?
A
Movement of water from one state to another, e.g., cloud to sea where water evaporates and then condenses
4
Q
What powers the hydrological cycle?
A
Solar energy
5
Q
What is precipitation?
A
Water that falls to the land as rain, snow, sleet, or hail
6
Q
What is interception?
A
When precipitation lands on buildings, vegetation, or concrete before it reaches the soil
7
Q
What is percolation?
A
Movement of water vertically through rocks
8
Q
What is surface runoff?
A
Movement of water over the surface of land, often when land is saturated or frozen, or when rainfall is so intense that infiltration can’t occur
9
Q
What are examples of impermeable surfaces?
A
Tarmac, concrete, clay rock
10
Q
What is a permeable surface?
A
Sandstone
11
Q
What is infiltration?
A
Movement of water through soil or plants
12
Q
What is groundwater flow?
A
The deeper movement of water through underlying permeable rock strata below the water table
13
Q
What is the global hydrological cycle?
A
The circulation of water around Earth, being a closed system that has no inputs or outputs
14
Q
What are the four stores of water?
A
Oceans, glaciers and ice sheets (cryosphere), surface runoff, atmosphere
15
Q
What is the largest store of freshwater?
A
Cryosphere, accounting for 69% of global freshwater
16
Q
What are the four main flows in the hydrological cycle?
A
Precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, and vapor transport
17
Q
How does water cycle up?
A
- Driven by solar energy
- Water evaporates into the atmosphere
- Water is drawn down from the soil by plants as water evaporates from leaves and stems by evapotranspiration
- When humid air rises, condensation occurs at cooler temperatures, forming clouds and leading to precipitation
18
Q
How does water cycle down to the ground?
A
- On land, gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as water moves through the system by plant interception or over land by surface runoff
- Water flows through the soil by infiltration and through flow
- It may be stored as soil moisture or percolate into the rock where it is stored as groundwater
- Some of this water will return to the oceans via streams and rivers
19
Q
What is fossil water?
A
Ancient, deep groundwater from former pluvial (wetter) periods, considered non-renewable as it takes a long time to replenish
20
Q
What is the statistic about water availability for humans?
A
Less than 1% of water is available for humans to use due to our growing population
21
Q
What is the most accessible store of water?
A
Groundwater
22
Q
What is a drainage basin?
A
A subsystem within the global hydrological cycle that is an area of land drained by rivers and its tributaries
23
Q
What are the five physical factors that influence drainage basin systems?
A
- Climate
- Soil
- Geology
- Relief
- Vegetation
24
Q
What are the three types of precipitation?
A
Orographic, frontal, and convectional
25
Where are the highest precipitation inputs?
Between the tropics (area of the ITCZ)
26
Where is the least precipitation globally?
On the areas of the Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn (23.5 degrees N and S)
27
What type of relief receives more rainfall?
Mountainous areas
28
What temperature gets the most rainfall?
Areas receiving the most solar radiation, e.g., the equator
29
What latitudes receive the most rainfall?
Mid latitudes, where cold fronts meet warm fronts
30
What are the four human factors that influence drainage basins?
- Over abstraction
- Deforestation
- Reservoirs
- Changing land use
31
What is a water budget?
Shows the annual balance between inputs and outputs and their impact on soil water availability
32
What is a river regime?
Indicates the annual variation of discharge of a river resulting from the impact of climate, geology, and soils
33
What are the four descriptions of things in the water budget?
- Soil moisture deficit
- Soil moisture recharge
- Soil moisture surplus
- Soil moisture utilization
34
What are the six factors that influence river regimes?
- Size of river
- Amount, pattern, and intensity of rainfall
- Temperature
- Geology
- Amount and type of vegetation cover
- Human activities
35
How many dams are there in the Amazon?
54
36
What do flashy hydrographs have?
Rapid discharge and high risk of sudden flood, therefore short lag time and high peak discharge
37
What do subdued flood hydrographs have?
Longer lag time and lower peak flow due to lower risk of sudden flooding
38
What influences flood hydrographs?
Physical and human factors, useful for predicting flood risk and comparing drainage basin responses to a precipitation event
39
What do hydrographs plot?
Occurrence of short periods of rain over a drainage basin and the subsequent discharge of the river
40
What factors affect a flash hydrograph?
- Urbanization
- Vegetation
- Relief
- Rock type and soil
- Shape of drainage basin
- Drainage density
- Drainage basin size
- Land use such as farming
41
What is the role of urban planning in managing land use?
Planners determine whether any proposed development will influence flood risk
42
What have urban planners recently introduced to reduce runoff produced by rainfall?
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
43
What are seven examples of SuDS?
- Green roofs
- Infiltration basins
- Rainwater harvesting
- Soak-aways
- Filter drains
- Detention basins
- Wetlands
44
What is drought?
A period of abnormally low rainfall
45
Where doesn't have droughts and why?
Deserts, because they are arid
46
How is drought measured?
Drought index or rainfall index
47
What are the four different types of drought?
- Meteorological
- Hydrological
- Agricultural
- Socioeconomic
48
What are the four physical causes of drought?
- Persistent high pressure
- Seasonal rain of monsoon failure
- ENSO cycles
- Long term precipitation changes due to global warming
49
What is the statistic about the world's drought exposure?
Over a third of the world has had some drought exposure, covering about 70% of the population and agricultural land
50
What percentage of the population is in areas of the most severe drought exposure?
18%
51
What is the atmospheric circulation system?
Redistribution of heat, where warm less dense air rises in low pressure and colder denser air sinks in high pressure
52
What is the size of the low pressure center region?
18 km at the tropopause, the lowest part of our atmosphere containing all our weather
53
How do humans cause more severe droughts?
By over abstraction of surface water and groundwater
54
What are eight ways that humans cause drought?
- Population growth
- Land use change
- Overgrazing
- Overcultivation
- Deforestation
- Climate change
- Depletion of water sources by pollution
- Urbanization and overabstraction
55
What is an example of an LIC drought and its causes?
Sahel region
## Footnote
Physical causes: only two rainy seasons a year, changes to the atmospheric circulation system, climate change, increased temperatures. Human causes: rapid population growth, high GDP reliance on agriculture.
56
What happened in the Sahel droughts?
- Demands for fuelwood and food accelerated
- Low shade coverage reduced biodiversity
- Land underwent soil erosion and desertification
- Ethiopian Eritrean drought caused 10 million in need of food assistance
57
What is an example of a drought in a HIC?
The Big Dry in 2006 in Australia
58
What are the physical causes of the Big Dry?
- El Niño event
- Major shift in rainfall patterns
- Climate change
- Low rainfall associated with subtropical blocking anticyclones
59
Where did the Big Dry commence?
In the Murray Darling basin, a 1 in 1000 year drought event
60
What were the effects of the Big Dry in 2006?
- More than 10,000 farms had to leave their land
- Reservoirs fell by 40%
61
When did the big dry commence and how monumental was it?
A 1 in 1000 year drought event commencing in the Murray Darling basin.
62
What were the effects of the big dry in 2006?
- Farming irrigation effects as more than 10,000 farms had to leave their land. Normally, the country would hope to harvest 25 million tonnes of wheat annually, but in 2006 they only harvested 10 million tonnes.
- Reservoirs fell by 40%. Australia has the world's highest per capita water consumption, with urban centres like Adelaide drawing 40% of its drinking water from the Murray Darling river.
63
What has been done after the big dry in 2006?
New schemes like costly desalination plants and recycling of grey water were implemented to meet the water supply needs of a developed country.
64
What are the meteorological causes of drought?
- Intense rainfall
- Prolonged rainfall
- Snowmelt
- Monsoon
65
Explain intense rainfall leading to flooding with an example.
Intense rainfall occurs without warning and is associated with severe thunderstorms or repeated storms.
## Footnote
Example: November 2013 thunderstorm caused 18 deaths and more than US$1.14 billion in damage.
66
Explain prolonged rainfall leading to flooding with an example.
Gravel can initially absorb rainfall, but when it and groundwater flow cannot transfer water away quickly enough, it becomes saturated, leading to faster surface runoff and larger river channels spilling into flood plains.
## Footnote
See textbook example.
67
Explain snowmelt leading to flooding with an example.
A sudden rise in temperatures in spring causes rapid movement and surface runoff, leading to flash floods.
## Footnote
Example: Red River in North Dakota, USA, had record flood levels due to snowmelt on impermeable ground in 1997.
68
Explain monsoon leading to flooding with an example.
Monsoons involve seasonal convergence in the direction of prevailing winds and include wet and dry seasons, especially near oceans.
## Footnote
Example: In India and Southeast Asia, summer monsoons carry heavy rainfall from April to September.
69
What are the four human causes of flooding with examples?
- Deforestation: In the Amazon, land use change for farming increased the Tocantins river discharge by 25%.
- Urbanisation: The 2011 Australian drought was partly caused by 35 years of urban sprawl in Brisbane, damaging 60 schools.
- Climate change: 19 polar rivers experienced a 10% increase in discharge over 10 years.
- Hard engineering: 622 km of flooded land at the Three Gorges Dam.
70
Explain deforestation leading to flooding with an example.
Deforestation reduces interception and evapotranspiration, increasing surface runoff. Without roots to bind sediments, soil erosion occurs, reducing river capacity and causing floods.
## Footnote
Example: The Tocantins river increased discharge by 25% due to deforestation in the Amazon.
71
Explain urbanisation leading to flooding with an example.
Urbanisation creates more impermeable surfaces, leading to faster surface runoff into rivers, causing flashy floods.
## Footnote
Insert textbook example.
72
Explain floodplain drainage leading to flooding with an example.
Development expands land for urbanisation and agriculture, reducing space for flood plains, especially when wetlands are lost.
## Footnote
Add textbook example.
73
Explain hard engineering leading to flooding with an example.
Flood management through hard engineering aims to reduce flood frequency but does not increase flood capacity.
## Footnote
Example: The Mississippi River was straightened, but major floods occurred in 1993 and 2011.
74
How are anticyclones formed?
Anticyclones are areas of high pressure where winds blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Air descends, leading to light winds and settled weather, often causing droughts and heatwaves.
75
What are depressions?
Depressions are areas of low pressure with rising air that blows anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, leading to cloud formation and precipitation.
76
What are the general socio-economic effects of flooding?
- Death and injury
- Spread of waterborne diseases
- Trauma
- Property damage
- Transport and communications disruptions
- Water and energy supply disruptions
- Crop destruction
- Everyday life disruptions like work and income.
77
What are the general negative environmental effects of flooding?
- Increased surface runoff of sediment and nutrient leaching, possibly leading to eutrophication.
- Pollution of soils with nitrates, chemicals, and heavy metals.
- Damage to habitats, breeding grounds, and food supplies, impacting ecosystems and biodiversity.
78
What are the general positive environmental effects of flooding?
- Recharges groundwater supplies.
- Replenishes soils.
- Triggers migration and dispersion.
- Increases connectivity between habitats.
79
What percentage of disasters were floods between 2000 and 2019?
44%.
80
How many floods were reported worldwide between 2000 and 2019?
Over 3,200.
81
What was the experience of flooding between 2000 and 2019?
Flooding was the most widely experienced disaster globally.
82
What fact about flood expense from 2000 to 2019?
Floods were the second most expensive disaster, resulting in 22% of disaster-related losses.
83
What fact about the lethality of floods between 2000 and 2019?
Floods did not kill as many people as other disasters, accounting for only 2% of disaster-related deaths.
84
What facts about the location of flood deaths and economic damage between 2000 and 2019?
90% of all flood deaths and 50% of economic damage occurred in Asia, notably in China, India, and Bangladesh.
85
How does climate change influence the hydrological cycle?
- Increases evapotranspiration, as seen in Madagascar's deforestation, which dropped evapotranspiration by 1/3.
- Affects stores and flows leading to flooding, such as melting permafrost and a 10% discharge increase in 19 rivers.
- Alters ENSO cycles, causing larger droughts and floods, like the Australian flood in 2011 and drought in 2006.
- Increases the magnitude and frequency of tropical storms due to a more intense ITCZ and warmer temperatures, increasing rain by 20%.
86
What impacts does short-term climate change have on the hydrological cycle?
ENSO cycles are associated with flooding and drought, and extreme temperatures may amplify these effects, making them more regular or intense.
87
What other effect does climate change have on the hydrological system with an example?
Increases uncertainty in the ITCZ system, causing concern over future water security, as seen in the Sahel region's drought in 2000.
88
What effect does climate change have on arid areas that are high-pressure belts with an example?
Increased evaporation rates could lead to more droughts and water scarcity, depleting groundwater stores.
## Footnote
Example: The Sahel region faces desertification and drought, with 45% of GDP reliant on agriculture and 65% crop loss.
89
What does climate change do to low-pressure belts like in the ITCZ?
Rising temperatures lead to more convectional rainfall and enhanced cyclone intensity. Warmer air holds more moisture, resulting in heavier precipitation and increased frequency of tropical storms.
90
What effect does climate change have on polar regions?
Glaciers, permafrost, and snow melt, depleting water stores but increasing flows like surface runoff earlier in the year, causing freshwater shortages.
91
How does climate change influence the type of precipitation?
Higher rain instead of snow in northern regions leads to more surface runoff and flow.
92
What is the process that causes climate change?
Increasing greenhouse gas emissions lead to more heat trapped in the atmosphere by the enhanced greenhouse effect, raising air and sea surface temperatures.
93
When does water insecurity occur?
When there is less than 1,700 m³ of water per person per day.
94
What amount begins water scarcity?
Below 1,000 m³ of water per day per person.
95
What are the human causes of water scarcity with examples?
- Over abstraction: China uses 40% of its water for irrigation, leaving Beijing with 7% of its supply for 16 million people.
- Industrial pollution: Kerala, India, faces lead pollution, affecting jobs at the Coca-Cola factory.
- Privatisation: In 2000, Bolivia's privatisation forced people in La Paz to choose between feeding their kids or getting water.
- Climate change: 1 billion Sub-Saharan Africans face water scarcity due to intensified droughts in the ITCZ.
- Growing population: Expected 9.2 billion by 2050, with high water demands for beef (15,000 litres) compared to potatoes (670 litres).
96
What are the physical causes of water scarcity?
- Climate change and variability: Droughts like those in the Sahel.
- Geology: Impermeable rock areas like the Sahel lose water quickly.
- Amount of precipitation: Low precipitation in desert areas like the Sahel.
- Saltwater encroachment: In Kiribati, rising saltwater blocks freshwater supplies.
- Land use change: Dams like the Aswan Dam reduced Nile flow by 65%, affecting 90% of Egyptians.
97
What is a California example of water insecurity in a developed country?
The Central Valley in California supplies 12% of USA's agriculture but faces agricultural water insecurity due to nitrate pollution.
98
Where is there physical water scarcity and what does this cause?
Beijing, with a population of 16 million, faces high-tech industry and agriculture demands, leading to an average of 240 litres per person per day.
99
By how much could China's water demand exceed supply by 2030?
China's demand could exceed supply by 25%, and India's by 50%.
100
What type of countries have economic water stress with an example of price?
Low-income countries (LICs) where the cost of water from vendors is 100 times the price of using a tap.
101
How do river systems affect water insecurity?
Less water availability upstream, especially due to seasonal changes, leads to lower discharges in regions on a continental scale.
102
How does climate affect water insecurity?
Tropical regions (30 degrees N and S) experience recurring drought due to sinking air and high pressure. Climate change exacerbates this, increasing evaporation and reducing percolation into groundwater aquifers.
103
How does geology affect water insecurity?
Impermeable rocks like chalk and limestone store water in aquifers, providing better water availability than areas with permeable rocks.
104
How does saltwater encroachment affect water insecurity?
Global sea level rise increases the risk of saltwater intrusion on freshwater supplies in coastal areas like Kiribati, where extensive groundwater pumping allows saltwater to move into soils and aquifers.
105
What is driving the rising water demand?
- Population growth.
- Economic development: Agriculture and industry, such as cooling processes.
- Raising living standards, increasing per capita water consumption for drinking, cooking, and cleaning.
106
What are the three human factors affecting water availability?
Quantity, quality, and access.
107
How does quantity affect water availability?
The population is expected to reach 9.1 billion by 2050, with high water demands for certain foods, such as 15,000 litres for 1 kg of beef compared to 670 litres for potatoes.
108
How does quality affect water availability with a case study of Kerala in India?
Pollution from agriculture, sewage, and manufacturing affects water quality.
## Footnote
Example: The Plachimada people in Kerala suffer from toxic sludge from the Coca-Cola factory, containing high levels of lead.
109
How does access affect water availability?
In many LICs, water distribution systems are inefficient, forcing people to walk long distances for water.
## Footnote
Example: 1 billion in Sub-Saharan Africa face this issue.
110
When does physical water scarcity occur?
When more than 75% of the country's water flows are being used.
111
How much of the world has water scarcity?
25%.
112
When does economic water scarcity occur?
When the use of water sources is limited by lack of governance, money, or technology.
113
How many people have economic water scarcity due to poverty and where are they mostly located?
1 billion people, primarily in Africa.
114
What does the water poverty index assess?
Resources, access, capacity, use, and environment.
115
Where has the lowest water poverty index and what is it?
Haiti, with a score of 32.7.
116
What is water supply useful for in economic development?
Industry, energy, human well-being, and agriculture.
117
What are the two approaches to managing water supply?
Hard engineering and sustainable schemes.
118
What are the three case studies of hard engineering methods?
China's North to South project, China's Three Gorges Dam, and Saudi Arabia's desalination projects.
119
What is the description of the North to South water transfer scheme?
The Beijing region has 35% of China's population but only 7% of its water. Three routes will be created from the Yangtze River to northern, eastern, and western China, with completion expected by 2050.
120
What are the pros of the North to South water transfer?
Reduces groundwater abstraction and lessens shortages in Beijing to boost economic development.
121
What are the cons of the North to South water transfer?
Costs US$70 billion and will submerge 370 km² of land, relocating over 300,000 people, making it only effective in the short term due to pollutants in the eastern route.
122
What is the description of the Three Gorges Dam?
Designed to control flooding on the Yangtze River, improve water supply by regulating river flow, and generate hydroelectric power.
123
What are the pros of the Three Gorges Dam in China?
Generates hydroelectric power and enables a water surplus to build up, diverted to northern China via the North to South scheme.
124
What are the cons of the Three Gorges Dam?
Displaced 1.3 million people.
125
What is the Three Gorges Dam designed for?
It is designed to control flooding on the Yangtze River, improve water supply by regulating river flow, and generate hydroelectric power.
126
What are the pros of the Three Gorges Dam in China?
Hydroelectric power generation and enables a water surplus to be built up and diverted to northern China via the North to South scheme.
127
What are the cons of the Three Gorges Dam?
- 1.3 million people relocated
- Poor water quality due to decomposing vegetation
- Expensive
- Flooded 622 km² of land
- Social, environmental, and economic costs.
128
What is the purpose of Saudi Arabia's desalination plants?
To provide 70% of Israel's domestic water supply.
129
What are the pros of Saudi Arabia's desalination plants?
Reliable and predictable, producing up to 600 tons of potable water per hour.
130
What are the cons of Saudi Arabia's desalination plants?
Each plant requires its own power station, produces CO2, and generates large amounts of salt and brine that harm ecosystems.
131
What is sustainability?
Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
132
What are the contrasting views of players in water management schemes?
Business owners often conflict with economic players, conflicting hard engineering with sustainable approaches.
133
What is an example of a drainage basin management scheme?
The Colorado Compact - the Colorado River flows through several USA states including California.
134
What are the physical causes and details of California's water insecurity?
- Annual precipitation rates of 200-500 mm
- 65% lost through evapotranspiration, 13% goes to the sea, only 22% left for human use
- 50% of precipitation falls between November and March.
135
What are the human causes of water insecurity in California?
- Population growth of 8 million since the 1900s; projected 45-50 million by 2050
- Imbalance as 3/4 of demand is from the south of Sacramento, which is heavily populated, while 3/4 of precipitation falls in the north.
136
What are the main features of the Colorado Compact river basin management?
In 1992, the river was divided into the upper and lower basin, with a boundary at Lee Ferry. States allocated the right to extract 7.5 million acre-feet annually, with lower basin states allowed an extra 1 million acre-feet.
137
What are the limitations of the Colorado Compact river basin management scheme?
- It does not clarify the water shares of states
- Arizona resisted agreements for years
- Resolved disputes in 1963 with formal agreements including Native Americans.
138
What global agreement ensures water peace?
The Berlin Rules replaced the Helsinki Rules in 2004.
139
What are the principles of the Berlin Rules?
1. Participatory water management
2. Coordinated use
3. Integrated management
4. Sustainability (economic, environmental, social)
5. Minimization of environmental harm
6. Cooperation on shared resources
7. Equitable utilization of shared water sources
8. Equitable participation
9. Avoidance of transboundary harm.
140
What are three ways that conflicts over water are reduced?
- Berlin Rules
- Nile Basin Initiative
- Colorado River Compact.
141
What is an example of a local disagreement over water?
Small-scale disputes over groundwater and river rights in small dams.
142
What is an example of a national argument over water?
Most large-scale dam projects lead to national arguments.
143
What is an example of natural unrest related to water?
Water privatization in Bolivia in 2000.
144
What is an example of international tension over water?
The Nile River Basin conflict between Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.
145
What is an example of an international dispute or war over water?
The Jordan River during the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel, Syria, and Sudan.
146
What are two other examples of water conflict agreements?
- Water Framework Directive
- UNECE.
147
What can lead to water conflict?
- Rising demand and falling supply, especially in water-scarce regions
- Transboundary supply issues
- Outdated agreements
- Pre-existing political tensions.
148
What is increasing the chance of water conflict?
Climate change.
149
What percentage of countries share water with at least one other country?
90%.
150
How many countries does the Nile run through?
11.
151
Of all disputes over water between 1948 and 1998, how many ended in military actions?
43 military actions, with 18 involving Israel and its neighbors.
152
What were the timelines for agreements over the Nile transboundary river basin?
- 1929: Nile agreement created by the UK between Sudan and Egypt
- 1999: Nile Basin Initiative aimed at sustainable socioeconomic development
- 2010: Cooperation Framework Agreement aimed at equitable water sharing.
153
What are the conflicts over water in the Middle East?
- Overconsumption projected to supply 11 million people by 2050
- Growing population at 1.5% annually
- Israel consumes 500 billion more liters than it naturally receives
- Degradation of existing supplies
- Border disputes and ongoing wars.
154
How is Israel managing water supply conflict?
1. Efficient techniques like recycling sewage water for agriculture and reducing agricultural consumption.
2. Acquiring new supplies by importing water-rich foods, known as virtual water.
155
What are the advantages of the public water supply in Bolivia?
- Increased supply by 16%
- Important for human health.
156
What are the disadvantages of the public water supply in Bolivia?
- Government can only cover 40% of houses due to inefficiency
- Water supplies only available for 2 hours, 3 days a week
- Unable to supply 55% of the population.
157
What are the pros of private water supply in Bolivia?
- If consumption reduces, the government might save money
- LEDCs can call for debt relief
- Can increase coverage
- Connections in La Paz and El Alto increased by 50%.
158
What are the cons of private water supply in Bolivia?
- Increased coverage but not affordable for many
- Less than 20% connected
- 200,000 people excluded
- Causes water privatization riots
- People face tough choices between spending on water or food.
159
What caused the water riots in Bolivia?
Agua del Tunari raised water prices to pay for the Misicuni dam project, leading to riots in Cochabamba.
160
What health statistic comes from increased sanitation and water quality?
65% reduction in deaths from diarrhea.
161
What is a consequence of increasing water expenses in LICs?
People must buy water from street vendors, costing up to 100 times more than direct supply.
162
What role do the World Bank and IMF play in water costs?
They provide loans to developing countries to privatize water supply systems, but many projects have been canceled due to public pressure.
163
Who are the key players in water in Bolivia?
Indigenous families in El Alto, who face high costs for water access and have resorted to digging wells.
164
What happened with the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam?
Built across the Blue Nile in 2011, it has led to clashes between Egypt and Ethiopia.
165
Why does Egypt dislike the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam?
It will reduce discharge in the Blue Nile, impacting Egypt's reliance on it for over 90% of its freshwater.
166
What is Ethiopia's view on the transboundary GERD?
Ethiopia sees it as key for future economic development and aims to become Africa's biggest power exporter.
167
What is the capacity of the GERD for Ethiopia?
More than 6000 megawatts.
168
What would happen in Egypt during an extreme drought with the GERD?
1 million jobs would be lost and a $1.6 billion loss to economic output.
169
What did Egypt want from the GERD?
40 billion cubic meters of water and no hydroelectric power generation during droughts.
170
What did Ethiopia want in the GERD negotiations?
To use wind turbines to operate hydroelectric power before the dam filled up in 2021 and 35 billion cubic meters of water.
171
What happened after Egypt dismissed Ethiopia's GERD proposal in 2019?
Negotiations continued, but Ethiopia announced it would start filling the dam by July regardless.
172
Which other country was worried about electricity from the GERD?
Sudan.
173
What is Egypt's projected population by 2050?
150 million.
174
What percentage of the Nile Basin is currently used by Egypt?
94%, despite most of the water originating from other countries.
175
Which other country needs water from the Nile for tourism and farming?
Kenya.
176
Who has dominant power in the Nile conflict?
Egypt, due to its military strength.
177
What are the two types of sustainable management schemes for water supply?
Recycling water and rain harvesting.
178
What is an example of recycling water as a sustainable management scheme?
Singapore's National Water Agency invested in NEwater, which involves collecting rainwater through drains.
179
What is NEwater?
A system with 4 plants that can meet up to 30% of the population's needs, cleaned by UV disinfection and safe membrane purification.
180
What are the cons of recycling water as a sustainable management scheme?
NEwater is expensive, costing triple the price of importing from Malaysia.
181
What is an example of rain harvesting as a sustainable management scheme?
Water Aid provided harvesting jars in Kitayita, Uganda, to collect water for drier periods.
182
What was the litre capacity of the harvesting jars in Kitayita?
1,500 litres.
183
What are the cons of rain harvesting as a sustainable management scheme?
Jars could get contaminated by feces, spreading illness and disease.
184
What are some economic problems with inadequate water supply?
- Cash crops grown for money
- Migration
- Inability to produce goods for sale.
185
What are some environmental problems with inadequate water supply?
- Hydroelectric power cannot be utilized
- Desertification.
186
How will climate change influence water flows and stores in Alaska?
- Warmer temperatures, positive feedback loops of melting sea ice
- Rising ocean temperatures
- 15% increase in precipitation by late century.
187
What is an example of flooding in a HIC country?
The 2011 flood in Australia.
188
What were the human and meteorological causes of the 2011 flood in Australia?
- Human: Urban sprawl developed floodplains
- Meteorological: The La Niña effect.
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How did the 2011 flood in Australia occur?
Brisbane experienced a 40% increase in rainfall, and the Wivenhoe reservoir had to release water.
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What was an environmental impact of the 2011 flood in Australia?
90% of the Brisbane River was damaged, with dead mangroves affecting fish nurseries.
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What were the socioeconomic impacts of the 2011 flood in Australia?
60 schools damaged and $800 million in damages in Brisbane.
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How many were killed and evacuated in the 2011 flood in Australia?
40,000 evacuated, no deaths in Brisbane, but 22 deaths in Queensland.
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What is an example of a flood in a LIC country?
The Pakistan flood in 2011.
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What were the meteorological causes of the Pakistan flood in 2011?
Monsoon season and the amplified La Niña effect due to ocean warming.
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How much of Pakistan was affected by the flood?
1/3 of the country.
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What was the socioeconomic loss due to the Pakistan flood in 2011?
Agriculture faced a $1 billion loss, with 70% of the population working in agriculture.
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What are the impacts of drought on wetland ecosystems?
- Decline in nesting sites for swallows
- Reduced aquatic bird populations like ducks
- Decline in thrush due to dry soil.
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What meteorological events were amplified in 2011?
The monsoon season and the La Niña effect were amplified due to the ocean warming by 2 degrees in the past 30 years.
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How much of the country was affected by the Pakistan flood in 2011?
1/3 of the country was affected.
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What was the socioeconomic loss due to the Pakistan flood in 2011?
Agriculture faced a 1 billion dollar loss, and 70% of the population works in agriculture.
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What are the impacts of drought on wetland ecosystems?
- Nesting sites of swallows decline, reducing their population.
- Reduced aquatic birds like ducks.
- Thrush will decline due to dry soil limiting their ability to feed on invertebrates such as worms.
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What is ecosystem functioning?
The biological, chemical, and physical processes that take place within an ecosystem.
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What is ecosystem resilience?
The ability of an ecosystem to return to its original conditions after a major disturbance (e.g., wind storm, fire, flood, clear-cutting).
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Why are deserts or semi-arid conditions most resilient to drought?
Due to adapted animals like the fennec fox, which has large ears to radiate heat, and adapted cacti with waxy skin.
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What was the effect of drought on forest ecosystems between 2000 and 2003?
Drought led to the die-off of Pinon pines in the southwest USA due to increased susceptibility to pine bark beetle attacks, killing 90% of these trees.
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What is the ITCZ?
The Intertropical Convergence Zone, where there is the most solar radiation—also known as the thermal equator.
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What happens in the ITCZ between March and June?
It moves north towards the Tropic of Cancer (23 degrees).
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What happens in the ITCZ between September and December?
It moves south towards the Tropic of Capricorn (23 degrees).
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Why are there deserts at 30 degrees north and south of the equator?
Because it is an area of low pressure due to the Hadley cell redistributing hot air from the equator.
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How does the ITCZ affect rainfall?
When it is overhead, it causes an area of low pressure and rapidly rising air, leading to floods in the north from March to June and in the south from September to December.
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What does the movement of the ITCZ mean?
It results in wet and dry seasons, such as the monsoon season.
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What does failure of the ITCZ cause?
It can lead to unpredictable droughts.
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How do mid-latitude blocking cyclones lead to drought?
They block low-pressure depressions and the polar jet stream, causing dry conditions.
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How much percent of water in the hydrological system is in the ocean?
96.9% with a residence time of 3,600 years.
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How much percent of water in the hydrological system is in the ice caps and glaciers?
1.9% with a residence time of 15,000 years.
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How much percent of water in the hydrological system is in groundwater?
1.1% with a residence time of up to 10,000 years.
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What water store has the largest percent of water and the longest residence time?
Oceans have the largest percent, and ice caps have the longest residence time.
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What is an example of human disruption to a water drainage basin?
Land use change in the Amazon for farming, losing the size of a football field every second, with the Tocantins River showing a 25% increase in discharge between 1960 and 1979.
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How did the river regime of the Nile change?
Flow reduced by 65% due to the Aswan Dam.
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What is an example of over-abstraction of groundwater?
China uses 40% of its groundwater for irrigation.
221
What is the water budget difference in monthly evaporation in Barrow, Alaska, in January compared to Cairo, Egypt?
0mm in Barrow and 22mm in Cairo.
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What is the mean monthly difference in water budget of precipitation compared between Cairo, Egypt, and Barrow, Alaska, in July?
24mm in Barrow and 0mm in Cairo.
223
How many green roofs are there in London?
There are around 700 green roofs in London.
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Why does the price of water vary?
- In developing countries, they often use water vendors which are 100 times more expensive.
- The IMF provides funds for privatization, causing issues like in Bolivia.
- Haiti has the highest water poverty index due to government corruption.
- Demand is increasing; 1 in 30 Americans have pools in their gardens.
- Infrastructure costs, such as the 1.6 billion dollar price of the Boundary Dam in Canada, which governments like Haiti would not invest in.
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What are the future patterns of water stress predicted for 2040?
- The Middle East will have a high 80+ ratio of withdrawal to supply due to conflict.
- Egypt will face similar issues due to transboundary conflict, possibly related to the Grand Renaissance Ethiopian Dam.
- The US and China will have a high 40-80% ratio of withdrawal to supply, exacerbated by climate change.
226
What is an El Niño year?
See in book.
227
What is a La Niña year?
See in book.
