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Genes and Environment > W2 > Flashcards

W2 Flashcards

1
Q

outline the impact of fungi on humans

A
  1. sources of food or used for food fermentation
  2. sources of pharmaceuticals; penicillins, statins
  3. sources of enzymes, cellulase
  4. plant and animal diseases, main cause of plant diseases
  5. symbiotic relationships with plants eg. Mycorrhizae
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2
Q

describe the structure of a fungus

A
  1. grow as filaments or yeast
  2. vegetative structure is mycelium where mycelium refers to a network of hyphae. Hyphae are monofilaments (cytoplasm in a tube) with a large SA:V
  3. cell walls feature chitin microfibrils embedded in a matrix of polysaccharides, protein and lipids
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3
Q

describe the nutrition and ecology of fungi

A
  1. heterotrophs
  2. secrete enzymes and digest food externally ie. food absorbers
  3. reserves stored as glycogen, fats and oils
  4. wide environmental tolerance and this can occur because spore productions helps spread in nature

eg. from observing the changes in Aspergillus niger enzyme production in glucose and straw and both, we can see that the fungi can grow on a variety of carbon sources suggesting they have a way to regulate enzymes required for the processes to take up nutrients

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4
Q

what are properties of fungal hyphae

A
  1. can be divided by cross walls called septa. however, the septa are incomplete, and allow cytoplasmic continuity
  2. hyphae can fuse (anastomose), forming cells with mixed nuclei (heterkaryons)
  3. capable of indefinite growth
  4. has a pore: allows transfer of materials between compartments, can be plugged in case of damage
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5
Q

describe how fungi are dispersed

A
  1. spore production that can be asexual or sexual in origin.

this is one of the two ways a fungus can reproduce

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6
Q

describe fungal reproduction

A
  1. reproduce by producing hyphae, by budding or fission in yeasts, or, though formation of sexual or asexual spores
  2. dikaryons (n+n) are formed by plasmogamy, karyogamy of compatible mating types. this goes on to a form a zygote of 2n.
  3. meiosis follows soon after nuclei in vegetative hyphae are now haploid (n)
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7
Q

what are saprophytic fungi

A

saprophytic is defined as gets energy from dead organic matter

  1. this fungi decomposes cellulose and lignin (wood). so, one example of the organism is a wood rotting fungi
  2. as they rot wood, they are recyclers
  3. they have a wide environmental tolerance meaning they can grow almost everywhere other organisms are found
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8
Q

what are parasitic fungi

A

structure: they have specialised infection structures (Appressoria) and take nutrients out of cell (haustoria)
eg. rusts, blights, wilts and rots of plants
what do they do mycoses and allergies, predators eg. nematode trapping fungi

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9
Q

list some examples of beneficial associations between fungi and other organisms

A
  1. Mycorrhizae between the fungi and plant root
  2. Endophytes where the fungi grow between the leaf and confer protections across herbivores whereby the fungi produces toxins
  3. lichens (fungi and algae), sim. to to Mycorrrhizae
  4. with invertebrates, leaf cutting ants, termites biocontrol
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10
Q

describe in detail the beneficial associations a fungi can confer

A

Mycorrhizae
location: with plant roots, plant root cells

what does the fungi do: fungi extracts sugars and fats from the plant in exchange for mineral nutrients and water it extracts from the soil

why is this good?: 1.fungi are efficient soil nutrient extractors due to large SA:V of mycelia

  1. allows plants to grow in more nutrient pore conditions
  2. stunted plant growth (sickly looking)

structure of fungi: in the plant root cells, the Mycorrhizae branch out around the cells. it has a vesicle, appresorium (entry point of nutrients), arbuscules (collections of mycelia in one cell for efficient exchange

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11
Q

describe fungal evolution and diversity in sequential order

A
  • evolved from a protist similar to extant choanoflagellates whereby one line led to the sponges and animals, and the other to the chytrids and other fungi
  • the chytrids and zygomycetes emerged early during evolution and are said to be in a paraphyletic lineage with Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
  • Ascomycota and Basidiomycota evolved from a shared ancestor, Dikarya

Physical changes:
• Dikaryon (n+n) life stage developed in fungal evolution in place of diploid (2n) stage
• Loss of flagellated stages as adaptation to dry tolerance, now it is only present in the chytrids

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12
Q

what are chytrids

A
  1. aquatic or soil borne
  2. motile zoospores (posterior flagellum)
  3. limited coenocytic (no regular septa, long tube like) mycelium
  4. can be parasites, saprophytes, mutualists
  5. • Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis:
    driven 400 species extinct
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13
Q

what are zygomycetes properties

A
  1. hyphae are coenocytic (no regular septa)
  2. sexual spores called zygospores
  3. asexual spores called sporangiospores
  4. effect: fruit mould, insect pathogens, uncommon human pathogen
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14
Q

describe Ascomycetes

A
  1. yeast, truffles, cup fungi, moulds
  2. hyphae have regular septa
  3. penicillin
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15
Q

what are the key reproducitve points concerning ascomycetes

A
  1. dikaryon limited to reproductive tissue
  2. meiosis follows zygote formation within the ascus, forming ascopores
  3. sci may be surrounded by. a fruiting body called the ascocarp
  4. asexual (mitotic) spores are conidia (spore produced at tip of hyphae)
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16
Q

what are some Basidiomycota examples, what’s the deal with their hyphae and describe their reproduction

A

mushrooms, toadstools, rusts and puffballs

vegetative hyphae are septated

  1. Basidia may be borne on a basiocarp. 2. asexual conidia (spore) uncommon 3. some yeast forms
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17
Q

what is the deal with the MAT locus in fungi

A
  • controls sex
  • a mating type locus that has been found in all fungi to control their ability to undergo sexual reproduction
  • small part of one( or two; basiodiomycetes) chromosome, rather than an entire chromosome
    • Genes encode global regulators, e.g. the high mobility \ group (HMG) transcription factors (like human SRY)
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18
Q

differentiate between chytrid, ascomycete, zygomycete and basidiomycota hyphae

A

chytrids have a limited coenocytic mycelium which is similar to zygomycetes whereas ascomycetes and basidiomycota have septated hyphae

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19
Q

compare and contrast ascomycete and basidiomycete life cycle

A
  1. whilst sexual spores are produced on the outside of the basidium, ascomycetes produce them in the ascus

ascomycetes form dikaryons before fusing whereas basidiomycota form haploid hyphae before fusing

  1. whilst the dikaryotic stages are separated in the Basidiomycota grouping the first and third stage, the dikaryotic stages in ascomycetes are joined following the haploid stage

both have a dikaryotic, haploid and diploid stage in their life cycle

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20
Q

outline the ascomycete life cycle

A

Haploid stage: (n)

  1. 2 mating types ascopores grow in a filamentous fashion to form a germinating ascospore that is separated
  2. a mycelium network is produced that can either produce spores asexually or sexually on each mating type. mating structures on each mating type are formed fro sexual reproduction

Dikaryotic: (n+n)
3. mating structures from each mating type fuse and a mixture is formed in the hyphae compartments. one end has dikaryotic hyphae formed from plasmogamy, whilst the other end has haploid hyphae
4. the ascocarp is formed where meiosis can occur. the ascocarp contains ascus that have undergone karyogamy
to form a dikaryotic ascus (n+n)

diploid:
5. fertilisation occurs where a single nucleus with 2 copies of the chromosome is formed in this TRANSIENT DIPLOID STAGE

Haploid:

  1. meiosis occurs to produce 4 haploid nuclei
  2. mitosis occurs so a separation of nuclei into individuals spores
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21
Q

how do genetic diversity come about from fungi in reference to the life cycle

A

in the transient diploid stage, the diploid undergoes meiosis whereby segregation of genetic material would have occurred. therefore gen. diversity

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22
Q

outline the basidiomycete life cycle

A

dikaryotic:
1. the basidiospores (characteristic sexual reproductive structure of basidiomycetes) forms outside the basidium

haploid:
2. basidiospore give rise to haploid hyphae

dikaryotic:

  1. haploid hyphae of different mating types fish, forming dikarytoic hyphae
  2. the dikaryotic mycelium grows and eventually produces a fruiting structure called the basidiocarp
  3. basidiocarp is topped by a cap, with gills on its unerside
  4. basidia develop on the surface of the gills

diploid:
7. fertilisation occurs whereby the developing basidium, undergoes nuclear fusion and meiosis takes place in the developing basidium

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23
Q

describe human mycoses (fungal infection)

A
  1. common, but not usually life threatening
  2. why do few species cause disease in mammals?
    - immune system is effective, grow slowly under low oxygen
    - few capable of growth at 37 degrees
  3. why are there many fungal diseases in plants?
    - greater o2, plant can’t grow at 37 degrees and IS of plant worse than humans
  4. a common virulence factor between human mycoses is growth at 37 degrees. the virulence factors of mycoses vary between species
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24
Q

describe the nuisance level of human mycoses

A
  1. ubiquitous but rarely life threatening in healthy people
  2. skin, hair, nail diseases, 4th most common disease. dandruff, athletes foot and toe nail fungus
  3. mucosal surface infections eg. candida eg. vulvovaginal candidiasis
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25
Q

describe the superficial level of human mycoses

A
  1. dermatophytes
  2. eg. Ascomycete caused: tinea and ringworm, Trichophyton, Microsporium, Epidermorphyton,
    basidiomycete caused: pityriasis versicolour caused by Malassezia furfural.
  3. many people are colonised, in some, these fungi become pathogens
  4. keratinolytic
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26
Q

describe subcutaneous level of human mycoses

A
  1. usually from wounding eps. tropical areas
  2. effect: lesions are ulcerated and crusted, can spread through lymph system
  3. genera: ascomycete caused: phialophora, cladosporium, sporothrix, acremonium
  4. candida sometimes here if mucosal surface breached
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27
Q

describe killer level of human mycoses

A
  1. invasive fungal infections, kill more than TB
  2. usually occur in immunocompromised people or complications from other diseases
  3. HIERACY OF SUSCEPTIBLE PEOPLE WITH THESE DISESASES:
    - HIV/AIDS
    - TB/TB like fungal diseases
    - cancer and fungal infections
    - eye infections
    - neglected tropical fungal diseases
  4. Global action fund for fungal infections for natamycin in eye infections
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28
Q

describe microsporidia

A
  • 700 spp
  • minute, obligate intracellular parasites
  • lack normal mitochondria and no flagella
  • originally thought to be very primitive eukaryotes, but now known as a fungi group
  • spore wall is made of chitin, same as fungal walls and stains with calcoflour white
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29
Q

describe microsporidia life cycle

A
  1. spores ingested from environment
  2. invade host cell by everting structure known as polar tube
  3. sporoplasm (parasite cell without wall) is injected through the tube into the host cell
30
Q

describe microsporidia genomics

A

Encephalitozoon spp. is an important parasite of humans and is located in multiple organs all over our body

  • Encephalitozoon cuniculi was the second fungus with a genome sequenced
  • had a massive gene loss resulting in a small genome of 2.5 Mb
  • Enterocytozoon bieneusi is a common cause of diarrhoea amongst children in African countries with high AIDS incidence
31
Q

describe pneumocystis

A
  1. obligate pathogens with reduced genome sizes to 7.7-8.2 Mb
  2. pulmonary disease
  3. may be one species per mammalian species
  4. P. jirovecii is the human pathogen that causes pneumocystis condition
  5. Taphrinomycotina (another example of pneumocystis pathogen) (ascomycetes)
32
Q

describe pneumocystis reproduction

A
  1. asexual reproduction: occurs in the lungs of mammals and involves a cell replicating into two daughter cells
  2. sexual reproduction: 2 haploid cells come together and fuse making a cyst like structure. this then leads onto excystment and then again
33
Q

contrast microsporidia and pneumocystis

A
  • small genome size
  • many metabolic capabilities
  • obligate pathogens
  • unique reproductive processes
34
Q

describe Candida albicans and other candida spp.

A
  • C. albicans is a normal part of most people’s microflora
  • 50 percent incidence in human population
  • symptoms: thrush, vaginitis and rarely: systemic diseases, nails
  • one virulence property: c.albicans is dimorphic: can switch between yeast, psedohyphael and hyphal forms of growth.

note: different forms have different functions. in the yeast form, it is for spreading, but in the filamentous form it is for getting into tissues and organs

35
Q

how can the life cycle of Candida albicans and other dimorphic pathogens be used

A

Candida albicans has various mutants in the yeast and filamentous forms. c.albicans can be locked in this form and used to inoculate animal systems of disease . also, when locked in the form, it cannot spread causing candiasis

36
Q

how is pneumocystis and c.albicans similar

A

they can be both be carried on a person inertly as microflora

37
Q

what causes c.albicans to become pathogenic and in what kinds of people and where

A
  • symptoms develop if bacterial competitors are disrupted such as from antibiotics, progesterone release during pregnancy, stress and abrasions
  • it is common in new born children and may become invasive and systemic in HIV, leukaemia, diabetes, corticosteroid and transplant patients
  • can cause disease superficially, subcutaneously and systemically
38
Q

contrast Candida albicans with another dimorphic fungi

A

Histoplasma capsulate is a dimorphic fungi with two forming, in the environment at 22 degrees, it is in the filamentous form, however, in the human body at 37degrees, it is in the yeast form.

whilst yeast form is for spreading in candida.albicans, it is pathogenic in histoplasma, capsulate

39
Q

describe candida auris

A
  1. in ear
  2. echinocandin(drug) resistant
  3. present in some sick patients
  4. evolution: originally occurred in four places, then clonal spreading
  5. hard to diagnose
40
Q

describe crytococcus spp.

A
  1. 1 million cases annually and 500000 deaths
  2. basidiomycete yeast
  3. how to diagnose?
    - melanin production giving brown colour and protection from IS
    - has capsule surrounding yeast
41
Q

describe the infection pathway of cryptococcus spp.

A
  1. birds or eucalyptus carry cryptococcus
  2. inhalation into lungs
  3. can become latent by lodging in alveoli
  4. can move from lungs and cross blood brain barrier to CNS to cause disease there
42
Q

describe aspergillus fumigatus

A
  1. everywhere but found in compost often
  2. high spore production
  3. resists high temperatures
  4. 2 types exist:
    Systemic aspergillosis:
    - present in organ transplant patients and people with surprised IS where the fungus can grow in tissues
    - weak host response
    Farmers lungs:
    - inhalation of large numbers of spores induce allergic reaction
    - strong host response

According to the damage response framework: we can’t say it is the virulence factors that cause harm to host, it is an interplay of effects

43
Q

what are some of the issues with fungal treatment?

A
  1. difficult to treat
  2. many antifungals have severe side effects
  3. treatment approach depends upon species and site of disease
  4. emergence of drug resistant strains coming from agricultural spray origins
44
Q

what are the fungal causes available in medicine

A
  1. polyenes: bind fungal ergosterol . eg. emphotericin B, nystatin, natamycin. least well tolerated with human side effects
  2. azaleas which target ERG11 for the synthesis of ergosterol eg. fluconazole. most commonly prescribed
  3. 5-Fluctyosine: base mimic of uracil, blocking nucleic acid synthesis. gives rise to resistant enzymes quickly
  4. griseofulvin: microtubule inhibitor and used against dermatophytes
  5. echinocandins. targets Fks1 which is an enzyme required for 1,3 beta glutan synthesis of fungal cell wall
    . ineffective against some fungi eg. cryptococcus
45
Q

why can fungicide therapy be long term and what factors need to be accounted for

A

eg. crytococcus has a treatment time of 9 months and it is a common disease in AIDS people. so when should we start ART for the underlying disease?
- we have to wait for a person to have a low fungal burden then start the HIV treatment.

according to the damage response framework, this kind of patient is left to the curve with a low host response. but after taking a antiviral treatment, they move to the right of the curve and the host can now recognise the capsule material and mount an IS. however, due to there being multiple infections in the body, death caused by too strong an immune response occurs.

46
Q

what are the toxic fungi that are toxin producers

A
  1. Claviceps purpurea: lysergic acid and ergotamine
  2. Aspergillus flavus: alfatoxins
  3. Fusarium spp. fumonisins
  4. Amanita mascara: amanitins and phalloidins
  5. Psilocybe: psiolocybin, psilocin
47
Q

describe Claviceps purpurea

A
  • gangrenous ergotism (gangrene) and convulsive ergotism (cramps and convulsions)
  • ergotamine is a vasoconstrictor
  • LSD leads to hallucinations
48
Q

describe afatoxins

A

from eating mouldy grain and food

  • liver damage and cancer
  • Aspergillus flavus on peanuts
49
Q

describe fumonisins

A

from eating mouldy grain and food
associated with cancer
- Fusarium moniliforme

50
Q

describe Trichothecenes and zearalenone

A
  • livestock issue: will not eat contaminated good

- fusarium spp.

51
Q

describe Amanita phalloïdes (death caps)

A
  • produces amatoxin
  • cholera like diarrhoea associated with dehydration, voming and abdominal pains
  • drop in coagulation factors
  • hepatic failure
  • kidney damage
  • death due to combined liver and renal failure
52
Q

describe magic mushrooms

A
  1. Psilocybe spp. Psilocybin
  2. Amanita mscaria, muscimol
    both hallucogenic
    used in spiritual rituals in numerous cultures
53
Q

drugs from fungi

A 
1. penicillin
cephalosporin
cyclosporine- immunosuppressive
ergot alkaloids
HMG Co-A reductase inhibitors (statins)
anti-tumour agents
54
Q

describe parasitic protists in terms of group classification

A

a polyphyletic group with the shared features that some members in each lineage can cause human disease

55
Q

what is the deifnition of a parasite

A

an organism which lives in or on another another and benefits by deriving nutrients at the other’s expense

56
Q

what is giardia lamblia in terms of facts and specialised structures giving rise to nomenclature

A
  1. FACTS:
    - also know as Giardia intestinalis
    - one agent of travellers diarrhoea
    - most common parasite infection in the world
  2. SPECIALISED STRUCUTRES GIVING RISE TO NOMENCALTURE:
    - dimplonad
57
Q

what is Giardia lamblia in terms of 3. USE OF DIFFERENT CELL TYPES OR CYSTS AS PART OF LIFE CYCLE: and 4. DRUGS:

A
  1. USE OF DIFFERENT CELL TYPES OR CYSTS AS PART OF LIFE CYCLE:
    - transmitted by cysts in food and water
    - 14 billion cysts/day in faeces
    - adheres to intestinal epithelium to absorb nutrients from host
    - not all infected people have symptoms

Trophozoite:

  • has two nuclei and 2 flagella
  • has mitosomes (mitochondrial remnants)
    4. DRUGS:
  • 5-nitroimidazole
58
Q

describe parabasalid in terms of an example

A

Trichomonas vaginalis:

  • causes general disease, usually not severe
  • 180 million cases world wide
59
Q

describe Paeabasalids in terms of special structures and physiology and treatment

A

structures: 1. undulating membrane (membrane extension) 2. paranasal body 3. axostyle (extension of flagella for movement)

physiology:

  • anaerobic
  • converts glucose to pyruvate by glycolysis
  • converts pyruvate to acetate in hydrogenosome

Hydrogenosome:

  • derived from mitochondria
  • independent evolution in Trichomas and other microbes, some still with DNA
  • inder anaerobic conditions produces H2
  • PFO (pyruvate ferrodoxin oxidoreductase) enzyme in hydrogenosome

treatment: 5-nitroimadazole

60
Q

what is kinetoplastids in terms of facts and specialised structures giving rise to nomenclature

A
  • relatives of alga euglena
  • eg. leishmania and trypanosoma
  • named for clump of DNA at anterior end of mitochondrion
61
Q

describe kinetoplastids in terms of special structures, location and diseases and treatment

A

VSG coat, variable surface glycoprotein, is constantly changing and avoiding immune recognition

bloodstream parasites

chagas disease, African sleeping sickness and leishmaniasis

very few effective drugs so have many bad side effects, eg. 5%mortality rate for African SS

  • therefore target the insect vectors:
    1. Tsetse fly: vector of sleeping sickness
    2. assassin bug: vector for chagas disease
62
Q

describe ciliates structure, lineage, and genetics

A
  • come from kinetoplastids Balantidium genus

structure: covered in cilia for motility and food capture
- one species Banaltidium coli causes human disease
- Paramecium:
- Crick’s model species
- two nuclei
- mating type determined by maternal cytoplasm that contains small RNAs

replication: through rounds of mitosis and meiosis, the micronuclei are replicated and fused to eventually produce 4 daughter cells note: 4 micronuclei become a micronuclei

63
Q

contrast fungal and parasitic sex determination

A

in ciliates paramecium, mating type is determined by maternal cytoplasm that contains small RNAs whereas in fungi, it is determined by MAT locus and sexual reproduction

64
Q

describe entamoeba histolytic in terms of prevalence, lineage and what is causes

A
  • undefined lineage in Amoezaba
  • causes the disease amebiasis
  • 3rd worst parasite: 100,000 deaths and 500 million infections
  • causes dysentary (colon inflammation) leading to spread in blood and eventual liver abscess
65
Q

describe entamoeba histolytic life cycle

A
  1. either ingests or lyses RBC
  2. transmission by faecal contamination of food or water
  3. cysts last several months
  4. cysts form trophozoites in intestine after ingestion

treated with 5-nitroimadazole

diagnosis:

  • typically have 4 nuclei after staining
  • 45 million cysts/day
66
Q

describe the Phylum Apicomplexa in terms of ancestors, what it is, examples and special features

A
  • 4500 species
  • from photosynthetic ancestor
  • all intracellular parasites
  • eg. Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium spp: malaria, Cryptosporidium spp: causes diarrhoea

apical complex:
-used to burst out of a used host cell and to invade

67
Q

describe Toxoplasma gondii in terms of spread, infection and examples

A

+ high infection levels:
- usually not severe in humans
- fatal in immunocompromised people
- developmental defects in infected foetus
+infects most mammals, cat is the definitive host (where the sexual cycle can occur)
- risk of exposure in kitty litter or uncooked meat
+different cell types
+eg. tachyzoites in fibroblast and Bradyzoites in brain

68
Q

describe Phytophthora infestans

A
  • cause of Irish famine as potato were 60% of food supply
  • killed potato crop
  • 1.5 mill starved to death, 2 mill emigrated changing world demographic

what was gotten from this tho?

  • legacy understanding of infectious disease
  • KOCH observed spores entering leaves of new host
  • transferred spores form a sick to a healthy plant which then developed symptoms
69
Q

describe plasmodium spp.

A
  • cause of malaria
  • mosquito is vector

what does it do?

  • infects RBC and liver cells
  • each plasmodium species infects only one host
  • 500 million infections
  • 1-3 mill deaths yearly
70
Q

describe malarial treatment

A

treatment:

  1. QUINNINE: first used in Peru to prevent shivering
    - active constituent of Cinchona bark is quinine
    - given with gin
    - however lost potency over time and some resistance has emerged
  2. Artemisnin: from traditional Chinese medicine
71
Q

describe protist genomics

A
  • largest is Parabasalids where trichomonad are 160Mb, the smallest is diplomonads where Giardia is 11.5Mb
  • Paramecium tetraurelia has undergone three rounds of genome duplication to get to 87 Mb
  • T.brucei has greater than 800 VSG genes and T.cruzi as greater than 1300 VSG genes because they can avoid IS
72
Q

describe the malarial life cycle

A

exoerythrocytic cycle

  • mosquito injects sporozoites
  • liver cells
  • liver cell with schizont form
  • ruptured schizont
  • enter bloodstream

erthrocytic cycle

  • immature trophozoite
  • mature trophozoite
  • schizont
  • ruptured schizont

SPORGONIC CYCLE

  • gametocyte
  • differentiate into make and female gametocytes
  • mosquito takes up
  • changes forms from microgametocte to macro gametocyte to ookinete to oocyst to ruptured oocyst which releases sporozoites
  • then all again

Genes and Environment (12 decks)

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