W2 Flashcards
how do language processes fundamentally differ from comprehension processes (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
People typically recognise words in their native language quickly, the same words require an intention to speak
what are the 3 steps of language production (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
-Conceptualisation- deciding what to express
-Formulation- deciding how to express it
-Articulation- expressing it
what does an utterance consist of (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
one or more words, spoken together under a single intonational contour
how does generating a language begin (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
specifying its semantic and pragmatic properties
what is the process of conceptualisation (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
-A speaker decides upon intention or some content to express
-Then encodes the situational constraints on how the content may be expressed
what are the properties of conceptualisation? (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
pre-linguistic and language neutral
what is formulation divided into? (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
a word selection stage and a sound processing stage
what is the word selection stage of formulation (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
selecting a word in one’s vocabulary based on its correspondence to semantic and pragmatic specifications
what is the appropriate representation of a meaning called? (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
lemma, lexical representation, or a word
what is sound processing (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
constructing the phonological form of a selected word by retrieving its individual sounds and organising them into stressed and unstressed syllables
what is articulation (Griffin and Ferreira, 2006)
the execution of motor programs to pronounce the sounds of a word
phonetics-
the study and classification of speech sounds
phonology-
the branch of linguistics that studies how languages systematically organize their phones
morphology-
the study of the internal structure of words and how their parts, called morphemes, create meaning
semantics-
the study of meaning in language, including how words are combined to create meaning, and the relationships between words and sentences
pragmatics-
the study of language in context, and how meaning is constructed and conveyed through language
lemma-
the word you find in the dictionary
lexeme-
a unit of meaning, and can be more than one word (run is a lexeme including run, runs, ran, and running)
lexicalisation-
the process by which new words, phrases, or patterns are added to a language’s lexicon
picture-word interference (PWI) task-
a language processing paradigm that studies how long it takes to retrieve words. In this task, participants are shown a picture and a distractor word, either written or spoken, and are asked to name the picture while ignoring the distractor
minimal pair-
a pair of words that have the same sound structure except for one sound (example- key and tea)
allophone-
a phonetic variation of a phoneme, or a different pronunciation of the same sound, that doesn’t change the meaning of a word
onomatopoeia-
a word or a word-forming process that imitates or suggests the sound it describes
what is the hierarchy of the structure of language
- pragmatics-language in context
- semantics- meaning
- syntax- sentence structure
- morphology- word formation
- phonology- sound system
- phonetics- speech sounds
what is phonetics concerned with
describing and classifying the speech sounds that occur in all of the world’s languages
articulatory-
how speech sounds are produced
acoustic-
the physical properties of sounds
auditory-
how speech sounds are perceived
what is phonology concerned with
the way speech sounds form systems in a given language
phones-
the smallest unit of sound in speech that can be identified and transcribed (for example, the ‘p’ sound in pat)
phonemes-
the smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning between words
what determines the phonemes of a language
minimal pairs
what is the Weaver++ model
computational model designed to explain how humans plan the production of spoken words
Weaver ++ model self-monitoring means?
internal monitoring- evaluating the speech plan internally before it is spoken
external monitoring- listening to one’s own speech as it is being produced
speech is automatic, meaning?
it’s impossible to think in the middle of a word, shall I say T or D
is there more attention paid to speech production or comprehension?
comprehension
what did Freud say caused speech errors
repressed thoughts
what did Dell say caused speech errors
due to the complex nature of the language production system; speech errors are not random, they often exhibit systematic patterns
anticipation-
speech error where a later sound or word is used earlier than intended (reading list - leading list)
perseveration-
speech error, sound or word from a previous part of the sentence is repeated (tin can- tin tan)
exchange-
speech error, two sounds or words are swapped (you have missed my history lectures- you have hissed my mistory lectures)
shift-
speech error, moving a sound or word from one part of a sentence to another (she decides to eat it- she decide to eats it)
addition-
speech error, Introducing an extra sound or word into the sentence (carefully- clarefully)
Deletion-
speech error, leaving out a sound or word that should be in the sentence (inedible-edible)
substitution-
speech error, replacing one sound or word with another (light- heavy)
blend-
speech error, combining parts of two words into one (calm and stable- cable)
from the 8 types of speech errors, what are the 2 processes?
retrieving the words- involves accessing the mental lexicon (essentially a mental dictionary) to select the correct words we want to us
Constructing a Syntactic Frame- organizing the chosen words into a grammatically correct sentence structure
from the 8 types of speech error, what are the 2 types of error?
word errors- occur during the word retrieval process, characterised by the selection of incorrect words
sound errors- occur later in the process when sounds are assigned to the syntactic frame, involve swapping, inserting, or deleting sounds
outline the 3 processes in Garrett’s model of speech production
conceptualisation- functional level, speaker formulates their ideas and decides on the message they want to convey
formulation- positional level, speaker selects the appropriate words and organizes them into a grammatically correct sentence
articulation- sound level, converting the formulated sentence into actual spoken words
what is lexicalisation
process of turning thoughts into spoken word
what is the 2 stage retrieval process of lexicalisation
Lexical Selection- speaker retrieves the semantic (meaning) representation of a word
Phonological Encoding- speaker retrieves the word’s phonological form (how it sounds)
what are the 2 different word substitution errors?
semantic errors- semantically related word used, for example cup instead of glass
phonological errors- phonologically similar word used, for example historical mixed up with hysterical
what is the evidence that phonological and semantic processes are separate
distinct semantic and phonological errors, concept of double dissociation, ToT state
how does double dissociation support that phonological and semantic processes are separate?
some brain-damaged patients may struggle with lexical selection (semantic processing) but have intact phonological encoding, while others have the opposite pattern- lexical meaning and lexical form are distinct processes
what is double dissociation?
two cognitive functions can be damaged independently of each other, indicating they rely on different brain regions
what is tip of the tongue (ToT) state
a person is temporarily unable to retrieve a specific word, even though they feel it’s just within reach
- comes with partial information such as initial sound, number of syllables, or activation of phonologically related words
how does ToT state support the 2 stage model of lexicalisation
in this state people have completed lexical selection, but can’t complete phonological encoding, providing evidence that they are distinct
what are the 2 theories of ToT
Blocking hypothesis, transmission deficit hypothesis
what is the blocking hypothesis
ToT occurs as a person’s retrieval process is “blocked” by a competing word or concept that is similar in meaning or sound to the target word
what is the transmission deficit hypothesis
the semantic system is more robust than the phonetic system; as we age, links between the systems weaken, causing ToT
which account of ToT does evidence favour?
transmission-deficit account
evidence against blocking hypothesis
- If blocking is correct, then words with phonological neighbours (similar sounding words) should result in more ToTs
- The opposite is true (Harley & Brown, 1998)
- Presenting a phonological neighbour should increase blocking, but it reduces it (James & Burke, 2000- phonological neighbours act more like retrieval cues
do bilinguals have more or less ToTs
Bilingual speakers have more ToTs- this may be as they have slightly weaker links between meaning and sound compared to monolingual speakers
do dyslexic children have more or less ToTs
Dyslexic children have more ToTs- no difference recalling the semantic meaning but more errors at the phonological stage (Hanly & Vandenberg, 2010)
what is anomic aphasia
- a type of aphasia that is generally considered less severe compared to other forms
- individual struggles primarily with finding specific words
- use of circumlocutions- talking around the word they can’t retrieve
- does not have a specific, well-defined area of brain damage associated with it
what are the 2 types of anomia
Lexical-Semantic Anomia
Phonological Anomia
Lexical-Semantic Anomia-
- the meaning of the words is lost, affecting the lemma level
- even though the word is known, the person cannot retrieve its meaning
Phonological Anomia-
individual knows the meaning of the words but selects the wrong phonological form (sounds), affecting the lexeme level
what is the debate surrounding whether lexicalisation is discrete or interactive?
- In discrete models, the stages of lexicalisation occur in a sequential, non-overlapping manner
- In interactive models, the stages of lexicalisation influence each other; information can flow both ways
what is cascaeded processing?
a type of interactive model where different stages of speech production can overlap and influence each other rather than occurring in a strictly sequential manner
what is some evidence against discrete models
- Errors are not random, as discrete models might predict
- Lexical bias- sound-level speech errors result in words more often than by chance
does evidence favour discrete or interactive models?
In general, evidence largely in favour of a weakly interactive system
what is subvocalisation
the silent, internal speech we engage in while reading or thinking
Ashby & Clifton (2005):
certain words take longer to read silently than others. For example, “PUbliCAtion” (with 2 stressed syllables) takes longer to read silently than “experiment” (with 1 stressed syllable)
Filik & Barber (2011):
inner speech during silent reading can reflect the reader’s regional accent
what do people who stutter fixate on more
Individuals who stutter tend to fixate longer on words during silent reading that they typically stutter on when speaking
what % of people who stutter also stuttered as children
34%
what is the link between stuttering and dyslexia
50% of stutterers meet dyslexia criteria; implies a significant overlap between stuttering and dyslexia
