w1: Ageing I

Question 1

Age distribution across populations

Answer 1

we have an ageing population- not necessarily healthy, people reach old chronological ages- in both developed and undeveloped countries

fewer births

Question 2

Definition Chronological Age

Answer 2

measured in units of time (month, years) that have elapsed since birth

Question 3

Definition Biological Age

Answer 3

to the condition or functioning of an individual’s body systems and organs compared to their chronological age (the number of years they have lived)
- Speculative

Question 4

Definition Functional Age

Answer 4

person’s competence in carrying out specific tasks.
- In comparison with chronological peers

Question 5

Definition Psychological Age

Answer 5

refers to how well a person adapts to changing conditions.

Question 6

Definition Social Age

Answer 6

views held by most members of society about what individuals in a particular chronological age group should do and how they should behave.

Question 7

what is old?

Answer 7

Chronologically: the magic age of 65…
- Is arbitrary.
Functional age: the third age, between retirement from work and start of age-impose limitations)

The fourth age, cognitive and physical impairments interfering with everyday functioning.

Question 8

types of ageing (+ve or -ve)

Perspective on Agin process

Answer 8

Normative aging
- What is considered a usual, normative, or average outcome.

Successful aging
- What is considered an ideal rather than average outcome.

Positive aging
- The ability to find happiness and well-being even in the face of physical and or psychological challenge.

Question 9

Two theoretical models of ageing.

Answer 9

1. The selective optimization with compensation model od aging (baltes and baltes 1990)
2. The ecological model of aging

Question 10

The selective optimization with compensation model od aging (baltes and baltes 1990)

• 3 key components

Answer 10

is a theoretical framework explaining how individuals adapt to the changes and challenges of aging.

Key Components:

Selection:
Individuals focus on prioritising specific goals or activities due to limited resources (e.g., time, energy).
They choose the most important or attainable goals.

Optimization:
Strategies are developed to maximize performance in the chosen areas.
Includes investing effort and resources to enhance skills and outcomes.

Compensation:
When abilities decline, individuals use alternative methods or tools to maintain performance (e.g., using assistive technology or seeking help).

Purpose:
The SOC model highlights adaptive processes that help older adults maintain functionality and well-being despite age-related limitations. It emphasises a proactive approach to managing losses and capitalising on strengths.

Question 11

2. The ecological model of aging (Lawton and Nahemow, 1973)

-competence
-person-environment fit
-environmental pressure
-adaptation

Answer 11

explains the interaction between an individual’s functional abilities and their environmental demands.

Key Components:
competence: physical, social, sensory, cognitive.
a person with high competence will adapt positively to wider range of environmental pressures than a person with low competence.

Person-Environment Fit:
Aging outcomes depend on the balance between an individual’s capabilities and the environmental demands placed on them.
When demands exceed abilities, stress occurs, but if demands are manageable, it fosters adaptation and satisfaction.

Environmental Press:
Refers to the demands that an environment places on an individual.
Varies depending on the individual’s physical, cognitive, and social abilities.

Adaptation:
Optimal aging occurs when there is a match between the individual’s abilities and their environment, promoting positive outcomes such as independence and well-being.

Purpose:
This model emphasises modifying the environment or enhancing an individual’s abilities to maintain a balance, ensuring a better quality of life for aging individuals.

Question 12

Biology og Ageing

Answer 12

• Gradual and cumulative
• Peak in early adulthood
• Decline after early adulthood (rate of decline differs between individual’s)

Aging in the absence of disease is rare.
The main risk factor to many diseases is age.
- Ageing affects the consequence of diseases when it occurs- ageing process and disease process interact.

Question 13

Morbidity and Mortality definitions

Answer 13

Morbidity: refers to illness and disease
Mortality: death

Two terms are related:
- Illness and disease can result in death.
- Death is often preceded by illness and disease.
- Morbidity does not necessarily result in mortality

Question 14

Life Span

Answer 14

the maximum longevity has remained the same over time (as a species no one has aged more than 120) – but the amount of people who reach that age is increasing.

Question 15

Life Expectancy

Answer 15

the average number of years that individuals in a particular birth cohort can be expected to live.
- Has increased over time.
- Affected by factors such as level of nutrition, sanitary conditions, and medical care.
- More and more people reach the maximum of life span- compression of mortality.

Question 16

Primary Ageing

Answer 16

• natural ageing
  Unavoidable biological process that affects all members of a species.
• Is set in motion early in life and progress gradually over time- with individual differences in progression rate.
• Is intrinsic: determined by factors within the organism.

Question 17

Secondary Ageing

Answer 17

refers to the physical and cognitive decline that results from external factors such as disease, lifestyle choices, and environmental influences,
experience by most, but not necessarily all members of a species

• Neither inevitable nor universal
  Resulting from hostile environmental influences
• Disease
• Disuse – ie. lack of exercise

Question 18

Theories of Biology of Aging

-programmed theories
-stochastic theories

Answer 18

Programmed theories: consider aging to be under control of genetically based blueprint- primary ageing related.

• time clock theory
• immune theory
  -evolutionary theory

Stochastic Theories: focus on random damage to our vital systems that occur with the process of ageing- related to secondary ageing.

• error theory
• wear and tear theory
  -stress theory

Question 19

The Time Clock Theory

Answer 19

life span is controlled by genetically determined time clock at a cellular level.
cells from infants and young children divide more times than cells from older adults.

telomeres: protective cap at the tail ends of chromosomes
- each time the cells and chromosomes divide the telomeres shorten, old age is the shortening of these telomeres, and eventually there is no more telomere and the cells cant divide and you die.

Question 20

Immune Theory

Answer 20

Immune system: defends body against invasion of foreign substances by producing antibodies.

Theory: immune system is programmed to maintain its efficiency for a certain amount of time, after which it starts to decline.
- Insufficient antibodies.
- Inferior antibodies: mistakenly attack and destroy normal cells.
- Linked to cancer.

Question 21

Evolutionary Theory

Answer 21

Members of species are genetically programmed to bear and rear their young. Once they produce and raise their offspring to independence, they have fulfilled their service in perpetuating the species.

Depending on levels of energy organism coast along for a period of time
Once excess of energy is used up, susceptibility to disease increases.

• Fruit flies forced to delay reproduction lived longer than fruit flies that reproduced early.

Question 22

Error Theory

Answer 22

Errors occur at cellular level resulting in the production of faulty molecules.
- Result from organism metabolic processes
- Exposure to environmental factors – ie, radiation.

Cells have a repair mechanism but may not keep up with damage created by faulty molecules.
Over time: unrepaired damage builds up resulting into metabolic failure.

Question 23

Wear and Tear

Answer 23

We begin live with a fixed amount of physiological energy, if we expend it all quickly aging begins early and proceeds rapidly.
- This theory has never been proven.

Question 24

Stress Theory

Answer 24

Two systems are involved in a stress response: sympathetic and parasympathetic

Stress triggers physiological activation that results in secretion of stress-related hormones (glucocorticoids)

Young organism: stress system quickly return to normal levels
Older organism: stress system needs more time to return to homeostasis.
- Prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids, increased blood pressure, increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Stress-related damage to the biological system can accelerate the aging process

Question 25

Individual Differences// Nature vs Nurture

Answer 25

Nature
-most people who live beyond 70 have a family member who lived beyond 70
- most who live beyond 90 had one parent that lived beyond 90
- identical twins are more similar in longevity than fraternal twins

nature cannot fully account for rate of ageing.
- twins: different rates of ageing- rarely exactly the same

Nurture
environmental influences
- exercise, smoking, level of stress, social relationships, marital status

Question 26

Caloric Restrictions and Longevity

Answer 26

rats that consume 50% less calories and weigh 50% less than normal fed rats have:
- lower incidence of cancer
- increased longevity

people who live in Okinawa have a greater than average longevity
- diet: low calories, high in nutrients

ppl with reduced caloric intake have a lower incidence of some cancers

Question 27

Marital Status

Answer 27

More likely to have normal habits such as physical activity, eating breakfast, wearing seat belts…

Association is stronger for older men than women.
- Women care more about their health, generally.
- Older adults with fewer social contacts were less likely to have normal habits than those with more social contacts.

Question 28

Nun Study

Answer 28

500 nuns of notre dame
1997 agreed to take periodic tests and to donate their brains to science after their death
all sisters: similar education background, similar dietary and exercise habits, no smoking no drinking, never married no kids.

Results: striking variability between the sisters
Some: normal and active – physically and cognitively- well beyond their ninth decade
Others: confined to wheelchair and suffered from cognitive impairment

Nurture cannot fully account for the rate at which people age and how long they live aging is the result of an interaction between both nature and nurture.

Question 29

Maximising Longevity

Answer 29

Changing lifestyle practices are more promising for maximising longevity.
- Ie. Stop smoking, decrease risk of cancer.

Exercise and positive feeling about physical capability
- Reduced likelihood of physical limitations
- Minimize the effects of circulatory disease.
- Contribute to maintenance of bone density.

Adequate medical care, sufficient intellectual stimulation, social contacts.

Question 30

Age-related Physical Change

Answer 30

First visible signs: texture and appearance of skin and hair
Skin becomes drier, begins to sag and shows wrinkles.
Hair becomes thinner and grey.

Different views/ double standards between men and women

Question 31

Musculoskeletal System

Answer 31

Muscle mass and strength gradually decrease with age.
Older adults often take longer to recover from exertion than young adults.
Reserve capacity of musculoskeletal system (as well as of other organ system’s) decreases.

Question 32

Musculoskeletal System- age related deterioration of joints

Answer 32

Arthritis: Degeneration of joints, causes pain and loss of movement
most common: Osteoarthritis
risk factors:
- increasing age
- obesity
- heredity
- low socioeconomic status
- female gender

cause: wear and tear or time in some cases injury
reduces QoL

Loss of bone density in the vertebrae.
Between ages of 55 and 75:
- Men can lose up to an inch.
- Woman can lose up to two inches.

Rounding of the back.
Stooped exposure.

Osteoporosis: extreme loss of bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue, results in bone fragility and susceptibility to fracture.
- Risk factors: age, gender, family history, smoking.

Question 33

Cardiovascular System

Answer 33

increased risk of:
- atherosclerosis
-hypertension
-aneurysm
- stroke

Question 34

Ageing in europe

Answer 34

• Europe is the oldest continent, with a median age of 40 years in 2009, compared to 28 globally and 19 in Africa.
• In 2009, 16% of Europeans were 65 years or older, a figure projected to rise to 27% by 2050.
• Societal impacts of ageing:
  o Increased demand for age-friendly products and services (e.g., mobility aids).
  o Restructuring of pension systems and long-term care due to growing beneficiaries.
  o Adjustments in infrastructure (e.g., accessible public transportation).

Question 35

Gerontology

Answer 35

• Definition: The scientific study of ageing, examining biological, psychological, and social dimensions.
• Interdisciplinary field drawing from sociology, biology, psychology, economics, and epidemiology.

Question 36

gender differences

Answer 36

• Women outnumber men in older age groups, especially in Eastern Europe (e.g., Latvia, Estonia).
• Causes:
  o Higher life expectancy for women.
  o Male fatalities in wars (e.g., World War II).

Question 37

Social network

Answer 37

• Importance: Social connections enhance well-being, health, and provide crisis support.
• Regional differences:
  o Nordic countries: Greater reliance on friendships and associations due to de-familialisation.
  o Southern and Eastern Europe: Strong emphasis on family ties.

Question 38

future direction of ageing eu

Answer 38

6.1 Disciplinary Insights:
* Biology: Physical ageing and healthcare systems.
* Psychology: Mental health changes and dementia.
* Sociology: Social networks and roles.
* Economics: Older people as consumers and workers.
* Technology: Innovations to support ageing and caregivers.
* Cultural Studies: Changing perceptions of ageing.

6.2 Policy Implications:
* Healthcare: Ensuring access to quality care and addressing regional disparities.
* Economic Support: Adjusting pension systems and promoting financial independence.
* Active Ageing: Encouraging employment, volunteering, and community participation.

Question 39

Biogerontology

Answer 39

• Studies the molecular and biological mechanisms of ageing, focusing on:

o Cellular turnover: Cells die and regenerate to maintain homeostasis.
o Free radicals and mitochondria: Factors influencing lifespan and ageing.
o Caloric restriction: Its effects on longevity.
* Theories and Prominent Views:
o Aubrey de Grey considers ageing a disease that may eventually be treated like other medical conditions.
o Criticism: Current evidence is limited to animals (flies, worms, rats), with no conclusive results in humans.

Question 40

Health Gerontology

Answer 40

• Examines the healthcare and daily living impacts of physical ageing.
• Key questions:
  o How to increase healthy life expectancy?
  o How to enable older adults to remain active?
• Recognises social inequalities:
  o Health disparities across income and educational levels.
  o Population-wide interventions target poverty, housing, and healthcare systems.

Question 41

Senescene

Answer 41

o The biological ageing process causing slower recovery and increased disease prevalence.
o Diseases like cardiovascular conditions may be intrinsic to ageing, while others (e.g., cancers) manifest after long latency periods.

Question 42

self perception of health

Answer 42

o Older adults may consider themselves healthy despite chronic conditions.
o Emphasises the need to consider subjective health assessments.

Question 43

strategies to promote healthy ageing

Answer 43

1. Slow Down Ageing:
   o Emphasises healthy lifestyle habits (diet, exercise) from early life.
   o Anti-ageing medicines show no robust evidence for efficacy.
2. Health Promotion:
   o Targets four major diseases: cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and lung diseases.
   o Strategies include not smoking, limiting alcohol, balanced diets, and physical activity.
3. Preventive Medicine:
   o Aims to delay or prevent diseases through:
    Early diagnosis for better treatment outcomes.
    Risk reduction strategies applied at population levels.

Question 44

Health status old europeans

Answer 44

• Life Expectancy:
  o At age 65 (2009), ranges from 15–21 years, with higher longevity in Northern and Continental Europe.
  o Healthy life expectancy varies:
   Lowest: Slovakia (3 years).
   Highest: Sweden (14 years).
• Frailty:
  o Defined by criteria such as weight loss, exhaustion, weakness, slow walking, and low activity.
  o Influencing factors include smoking and low physical activity, particularly prevalent among low-income and less-educated populations.
• Common Diseases:
  o Cardiovascular diseases: Leading cause of death, with strokes and heart attacks prominent.
  o Cancer: Commonly affects lungs, breasts, prostate, and colon.
  o Diabetes: Prevalence is rising with ageing populations.
  o Mental Health:
   Depression: More common in Southern Europe.
   Dementia: Affects 7% of Europeans aged 65+, with rates expected to rise.

Question 45

care for frail older eu

Answer 45

• Informal Care:
  o Unpaid care by family or friends, predominantly women.
  o Increasing care needs pose challenges, but older individuals themselves often contribute (e.g., spousal care, grandchild care).
• Formal Care:
  o Provided by professionals in institutions or homes.
  o Significant differences in care infrastructure:
   Northern Europe: Higher expenditures and resources for long-term care.
   Southern and Eastern Europe: Limited formal care facilities and workers.

Question 46

is a longer life desirable?

Compression vs Expansion of Morbidity

Answer 46

• Compression Hypothesis:
  o Severe health problems are delayed until the final years of life, increasing healthy years.
• Expansion Hypothesis:
  o Prolonged life increases the total years spent with chronic conditions.
• Empirical Evidence:
  o Both hypotheses hold partial truth:
   Chronic diseases may dominate the years before severe health decline.
   Many older adults maintain a high quality of life despite chronic conditions.