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Biology > Voice of the Genome > Flashcards

Voice of the Genome Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Describe the nucleus

A

A large organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope which contains many pores.

The nucleus contains chromatin (DNA and proteins) and a nucleolus.

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2
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

The nucleus controls the cell’s activities by controlling transcription of DNA.

DNA contains instructions to make proteins.

The pores allow substances to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

The nucleus makes ribosomes.

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3
Q

Describe a lysosome

A

A round organelle surrounded by a membrane with no clear internal structure.

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4
Q

What is the function of a lysosome?

A

Contains digestive enzymes.

These are kept separate from the cytoplasm by the surrounding membrane and can be used to digest invading cells or to break down worn out components of the cell.

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5
Q

Describe a ribosome

A

A very small organelle that either freely floats in the cytoplasm or is attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

It’s made up of proteins and RNA.

It has no membrane

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6
Q

What is the function of the ribosome?

A

Site of protein synthesis

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7
Q

Describe the Rough ER

A

A system of membranes enclosing a fluid-filled space.

The surface is covered with ribosomes.

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8
Q

What is the function of the Rough ER

A

Folds and processes proteins that have been made in the ribosomes.

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9
Q

Describe the Smooth ER

A

Similar to the RER but with no ribosomes

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10
Q

What is the function of the Smooth ER

A

Synthesises and processes lipids

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11
Q

Describe the Golgi Apparatus

A

A group of fluid-filled , membrane bound, flattened sacs.

Vesicles are often seen are the edges of the sacs.

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12
Q

What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?

A

It processes and packages new lipids and proteins.

It also makes lysosomes.

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13
Q

Describe the mitochondrion

A

Usually oval-shaped.

Double membrane - inner is folded to form cristae.

Inside is the matrix which contains enzymes

involved in respiration.

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14
Q

What is the function of the mitochondrion?

A

The site of aerobic respiration, where ATP is produced.

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15
Q

Describe a centriole

A

Small, hollow cylinders, made of microtubules.

Found in animal cells but only some plant cells.

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16
Q

What is the function of the centriole?

A

Involved in the separation of chromosomes during cell division.

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17
Q

Describe how proteins leave the cell.

A

1) Made at ribosomes
2) Ribosomes on the RER make proteins that are excreted or attached to the cell membrane. Free ribosomes in the cytoplasm make proteins that stay in the cytoplasm
3) New proteins made at the RER are folded and processed in the RER
4) They’re then transported from the RER to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles
5) At the golgi apparatus the proteins undergo further processing.
6) The proteins enter more vesicles to be transported around the cell.

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18
Q

What organelles can be found in Eukaryotic cells?

A 
Nucleus
Lysosome
Ribosome
RER
SER
Golgi apparatus
Mitochondrion
Centriole
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19
Q

What organelles can be found in Prokaryotic cells?

A

Pili
Mesosomes
Plasmids
Flagellum

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20
Q

Describe the cytoplasm in a prokaryotic cell.

A

Contains no membrane-bound organelles.

Has ribosomes but they’re smaller

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21
Q

What are Pili?

A

Short hair-like structures.

Help prokaryotic cells stick together

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22
Q

What are Flagellum?

A

Long hair-like structure that rotates to make cell move.

Not all prokaryotic cells have them.

23
Q

What are mesosomes?

A

Inward folds in the plasma membrane.

24
Q

What are similar cells organised into?

A

Tissue

25
Q

Compare and contrast prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

A

Prokaryotes are smaller than eukaryotes.

Prokaryotes do not contain membrane bound organelles whereas eukaryotes do.

Smaller ribosomes in prokaryotes.

26
Q

What is the calculation for magnification?

A

M = I / A

27
Q

Describe fertilisation.

A
  1. The sperm reach the ovum.
  2. Chemicals are released, triggering the acrosome reaction.
  3. The acrosome fuses with the membrane and releases enzymes which digest the zona pellucida.
  4. The sperm fuses with the ovum.
  5. Enzymes are released from cortical granules which thicken the zona pellucida, preventing polyspermy.
  6. The nuclei fuse.
28
Q

Describe independent assortment.

A

Either chromosome from each pair could be in any gamete.

29
Q

Describe crossing over.

A

Homologous chromosomes pair up and the four chromatids come into contact.

The chromatids break at the chiasma and rejoin in any variation.

30
Q

Describe what happens in the G phases of the cell cycle.

A

This is where cells grow.

31
Q

Describe what happens in the S phase of the cell cycle

A

Synthesis.

32
Q

Describe what happens in interphase.

A

Organelles are synthesised and DNA replication occurs.

33
Q

Describe what happens in prophase.

A
  1. Chromosomes become shorter and thicker. They are joined at the centromere.
  2. Microtubules form spindle fibres.
  3. Centrioles move to opposite poles.
  4. Nuclear envelope breaks down.
34
Q

Describe what happens in metaphase.

A

Centromeres attach to spindle fibres and the chromosomes line up down the middle.

35
Q

Describe what happens in anaphase.

A

The centromeres split and the spindle fibres shorten.

36
Q

Describe what happens in telophase.

A

Chromosomes unravel and the nuclear envelope reforms.

37
Q

Describe what happens in cytokinesis.

A

Divides into two cells by invagination or constriction.

38
Q

What is mitosis important for?

A

Growth
Repair
Asexual reproduction.

39
Q

What is the calculation for mitotic index?

A

(Prophase + Metaphase + Anaphase + Telophase) divided by the total number of cells.

40
Q

Describe sex linkage of genes.

A

Genes for a certain characteristic are on the sex chromosome.

If the characteristic is on the X chromosome, males will be sufferers as they only need one copy of the allele.

In order for females to be sufferers, they would need to have both copies of the recessive allele.

41
Q

Describe totipotency.

A

Has the potential to give rise to all cell types.

42
Q

Describe pluripotency.

A

Has the ability to give rise to most cell types.

43
Q

Describe multipotency.

A

More differentiated buy still has the ability to give rise to cells of their type.

44
Q

Describe the epigenome.

A

The epigenome influences which genes are transcribed.

DNA is wrapped around histones which are surrounded by chemical markers.

Modification of histones occurs by methylation or acetylation which affects how tightly the DNA is wrapped.

The more tightly wound causes genes to become inactive and switched off.

45
Q

Describe the lac operon experiment.

A
  1. E. Coli produces beta galactosidase to break down carbohydrate lactose.
  2. This converts lactose to its monosaccharides, glucose and galactose.
  3. When lactose is not present, a lactose repressor binds to DNA, preventing the production of beta galactosidase.
  4. RNA polymerase is unable to bind to the DNA.
46
Q

Define polygenic inheritance.

A

More than one gene is involved in the inheritance of a single characteristic.

47
Q

Describe changes around height.

A 
Taller men have more children.
Greater movement.
Less inbreeding.
Better nutrition and improved health.
End of child labour.
Better heating.
Better clothing.
48
Q

Describe the production of melanin.

A
  1. Made in melanocytes which is activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormones.
  2. Melanocytes move melanin into melanosomes which are then transferred into skin and hair cells.
49
Q

Describe nature and nurture as influences for epigenetic changes.

A

Nature: environment can trigger changes, such as medicines or drugs.

Nurture: behaviour can have an effect on whether a gene is expressed.

50
Q

Define cancer.

A

Rate of cell multiplication is faster than cell death.

51
Q

Describe oncogenes.

A

Oncogenes code for proteins stimulating transition in the cell cycle.

Mutations in oncogenes may lead to excessive or quicker cell division.

52
Q

Describe tumour suppressor genes.

A

Produces suppressor proteins which stop the cycle.

Loss of tumour suppressor proteins has been linked with different variations of cancers.

53
Q

Describe general risk factors for cancer.

A 
Genetic predisposition
Smoking
Exposure to UV light
Poor diet
Viral infections
Exposure to asbestos.

Biology (5 decks)

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