Vocabulary Flashcards
1
Q
Absolute Poverty
A
Poverty wherein people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities such as shelter, food, and clothing
2
Q
Absolute Threshold
A
The minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system
3
Q
Accomodation
A
The process by which existing schemata (organized patterns of thoughts and behaviors) are modified to encompass new information
4
Q
Acetylcholine
A
A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary muscle control
5
Q
Achieved Status
A
A status gained as a result of direct, individual action
6
Q
Acquisition
A
In classical conditioning, the process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus
7
Q
Adaptation
perception
A
A decrease in stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure
8
Q
Adaptation
learning
A
The process by which new information is processed consisting of assimilation and accommodation
9
Q
Adaptive Value
A
The extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing its evolutionary fitness
10
Q
Affect
A
The experience and display of emotion
11
Q
Ageism
A
Prejudice or discrimination on the basis of a person’s age
12
Q
Aggression
A
A behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase relative social dominance; can be physical or verbal
13
Q
Alcohol Myopia
A
The inability to consider the consequences and possible outcomes of one’s actions due to alcohol intoxication
14
Q
Alertness
A
A state of consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment; nearly synonymous with arousal
15
Q
Aligning Actions
A
An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses
16
Q
Alter-Casting
A
An impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person
17
Q
Altruism
A
A form of helping behavior in which one’s intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to oneself
18
Q
Amphetamine
A
A central nervous stimulant that increases activity of both dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain
19
Q
Amygdala
A
A portion of the limbic system that is importation for memory and emotion (especially fear)
20
Q
Anomie
A
The breakdown of social bonds between an individual and society; anomic conditions can result in the erosion of social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation
21
Q
Anxiety Disorders
A
Disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and/or apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagined events that can impair physical and psychological health
22
Q
Appraisal Model
A
A theory of emotional expression that posits that:
- There are biologically-predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced
- There is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression
23
Q
Archetype
A
In Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is a part of the collective unconsciousness
24
Q
Arcuate Fasciculus
A
A bundle of axons that connects Wernicke’s area (language comprehension) with Broca’s area (speech production)
-Damage (conduction aphasia) results in inability to repeat things
25
Arousal
A psychological and physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness
26
Arousal Theory
A theory of motivation that states there is a particular level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by Yerkes-Dodson Law
27
Ascribed Status
A status that one is given at birth, such as race, ethnicity, or sex
28
Assimilation
| psychology
The process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata
29
Assimilation
| sociology
The process by which the behavior and culture of a group or an individual begins to merge with that of another group
30
Associative Learning
The process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus in response (i.e. classical conditioning, operative conditioning)
31
Attachment
A very deep emotional bond to another person, particularly a parent or caregiver
32
Attitude
A tendency toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of a person, place, thing, or situation
33
Attribute Substitution
A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution
34
Attibution Theory
A theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior
35
Authentic Self
Who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes
36
Automatic Processing
The brain process most closely resembling autopilot, enabling performance of multiple activities at the same time
37
Autonomic Nervous System
The involuntary branch of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, bronchial dilation, temperature, and digestion
38
Autonomy
The ethical tenet that the physician has the responsibility to respect patients' choices about their own healthcare
39
Availability Heuristic
A shortcut in decision making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of information on a subject
40
Avoidance Learning
A form of negative reinforcement in which one avoids the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
41
Back Stage
In the dramaturgical approach, the setting in which players are free from their role requirements and not in front of the audience; behaviors may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible from the audience
42
Barbiturate
A drug that acts as a central nervous system depressant; often used for anxiety, insomnia, and as an antiseizure medication
43
Basal Ganglia
A portion of the forebrain that coordinates the muscle movement and routes information form the cortex to the brain and spinal cord
44
Basic Model
First established by Charles Darwin, a theory that states that emotional expression involves a number of systems, including facial expression as well as behavioral and psychological responses; claims that emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures
45
Belief
An acceptance that a statement is true or that something exists
46
Beneficence
The ethical tenet that states that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest
47
Benzodiazepine
A central nervous system depressant that is often used to reduce anxiety or promote sleep
48
Biomedical Approach
An approach to psychological disorders that considers only the pathophysiological causes and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptom alleviation
49
Biopsychosocial Approach
An approach to psychological disorders that considers conditions and treatments to be dependent on biological, psychological, and social causes
50
Birth Rate
The number of births per population in a period of time; usually the number of birth per 1000 people per year
51
Bisexual
A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of both sexes
52
Brainstem
The most primitive portion of the brain, which includes the midbrain and hindbrain; controls the autonomic nervous system and communication between the spinal cord, cranial nerves, and brain
53
Broca's Aphasia
Loss of the motor function of speech, resulting in intact understanding with an inability to coherently produce spoken language
54
Broca's Area
A brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere) that is largely responsible for the motor function of speech
55
Bureaucracy
A formal organization with the goral of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible by dividing the work among a number of bureaus
56
Bystander Effect
The observation that, when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need
57
Cannon-Bard Theory
A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced
58
Cataplexy
Loss of muscle control with intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually in response to an emotional trigger
59
Catatonia
Disorganized motor behavior characterized by various unusual physical movements or stillness
60
Central Nervous System (CNS)
The portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord
61
Cerebellum
A portion of the hindbrain that maintains posture and balance and coordinate body movements
62
Cerebral Cortex
The outermost layer of the cerebrum, responsible for complex perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive processes
63
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
An aqueous solution in the brain and spinal cord rest; produced by cells lining the ventricles of the brain
64
Cerebrum
A portion of the brain that contains the cerebral cortex
65
Characteristic Institution
The social structure or institution about which societies are organized
66
Circadian Rhythm
The alignment of physiological processes with the 24-hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system
67
Circular Reaction
A repetitive action that achieves a desired response; seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage
68
Classical Conditioning
A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus; the neutral stimulus this becomes a conditioned stimulus
69
Cognitive Dissonance
The simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions
70
Collective Unconsciousness
In Jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry
71
Colliculi
Two structures in the midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes; the superior colliculus receives visual sensory input, and the inferior colliculus receives auditory sensory input
72
Compliance
A change of behavior of an individual at the request of another
73
Conduction Aphasia
A speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculis
74
Confirmation Bias
A cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis, and ignores evidence against it
75
Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework that emphasizes the roles of power differentials in producing social order
76
Conformity
The changing of beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society
77
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself; can be used to describe varying levels of awareness that occur with wakefulness, sleep, dreaming, and drug-induced states
78
Conservation
Concept seen in quantitative analysis performed by a child; develops when a child is able to identify the difference between quantity by number and actual amount, especially when faced with identical quantities separated into varying pieces
79
Context Effect
A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the location where encoding took place
80
Contralateral
On the opposite side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain)
81
Controlled (Conscious) Processing
Processing method used when a task requires complete attention
82
Correspondent Inference Theory
A theory that states that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected
83
Critical Period
A time during development during which exposure to language is essential for eventual development of the effective use of language; occurs between two years of age and puberty
84
Crystallized Intelligence
The cognitive capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using information acquired using schooling and other experiences
85
Cultural Relativism
The theory that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms to be fully understood
86
Cultural Sensitivity
Recognizing and respecting differences between cultures
87
Cultural Syndrome
A shared set of beliefs, attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme and found among people who speak the same language and share a geographic region
88
Deductive Reasoning
A form of cognition that starts with general information and narrows down that information to create a conclusion
89
Defense Mechanism
In Freudian psychoanalysis, a technique used by the ego that denies, falsifies, or distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by undesirable urges of the id and superego
90
Deindividuation
The idea that people will lose a sense of self-awareness and can act dramatically differently based on the influence of a group
91
Delusions
Fixed, false beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by one's culture, and are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary
92
Demographic Transition
The transition from high to lower birth and mortality rates seen as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system
93
Demographics
The statistical arm of sociology, which attempts to characterize and explain populations by quantitative analysis
94
Depressant
Any substance that reduced nervous system function
95
Depressive Episode
A period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms
96
Deviance
The violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society
97
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
The guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized, described, and diagnosed; currently in its fifth edition (DSM-5, published May 2013)
98
Diencephalon
A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland
99
Disconfirmation Principle
The idea that a hypothesis is discarded or revised if it is not confirmed by evidence obtained during testing
100
Discrimination
| classical conditioning
The process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses
101
Discrimination
| sociology
When individuals of a particular group are treated differently than other based on their group
102
Dishabituation
A sudden increase in response to a stimulus, usually due to a change in the stimulus or addition of another stimulus; also known as resensitization
103
Displacement
A defense mechanism by which undesired urges are transferred from one target to another, more acceptable one
104
Display Rules
Cultural expectations of how emotions can be expressed
105
Dispositional (Internal) Attributions
Attributions that relate to the decisions or personality of the person whose behavior is being considered
106
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders that involve a perceived separations from identity or the environment
107
Distant Networks
Networks that are looser and composed of weaker ties
108
Distress
The stress response to unpleasant stressors
109
Divided Attention
The ability to attend to multiple stimuli simultaneously and to perform multiple tasks at the same time
110
Dominant Hemisphere
The side of the brain (left in most individuals) that provides analytic, language, logic, and math skills
111
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with smooth movements, steady posture, the reward pathway, and psychosis
112
Dramaturgical Approach
An impression management theory that represents the world as a stage and individuals as actors performing to an audience
113
Drive Reduction Theory
A theory that explains motivations as being based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states
114
Drives
Deficiencies that activate particular behaviors focused on a goal
115
Dyssomnia
A sleep disorder in which one has difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep
116
Ecstasy
The common name for MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine), a central nervous system stimulant with effects similar to both amphetamines and hallucinogens
117
Ego
In Freudian psychology, the part of the unconscious mind that mediates the urges of the id and superego and operates under the reality principle
118
Egocentrism
A self-centered view of the world seen in Piaget's preoperational stage in which one is not necessarily able to understand the experience of another person
119
Elaboration Liklihood Model
A theory in which attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of deep though given to persuasive information
120
Elaborative Rehearsal
The association of information in short-term memory to information already stored in long-term memory; aids in long-term storage
121
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A test used to study the electrical patterns of the brain under varying conditions, consisting of multiple electrodes placed on the scalp
122
Emotion
A feeling and state of mind derived from circumstances, mood, or relationships
123
Emotional Support
Listening to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings as part of social support
124
Empathy
The ability to vicariously experience the emotions of others
125
Encoding
The process of receiving information and preparing it for storage; can be automatic or effortful
126
Endorphins
Natural painkillers produced by the brain
127
Epinephrine
A neurotransmitter associated with the fight-or-flight response
128
Errors of Growth
A misuse of grammar seen during language development in children characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions
129
Escape Learning
A form of negative reinforcement in which one reduces the unpleasantness of something that already exists
130
Esteem Support
Affirming qualities and skills of the persona as part of social support
131
Ethnicity
A social construct that sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors
132
Ethnocentrism
The practice of making judgements about other culture based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture
133
Eustress
The stress response to positive conditions
134
Explicit Memory
Memory that requires conscious recall, divided into facts (semantic memory) and experiences (episodic memory); also known as declarative memory
135
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the decrease in response resulting from repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus
136
Extraversion
In trait theory, the degree to which an individual is able to tolerate social interaction and stimulation
137
Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation that is external, or outside the self, including rewards and punishments
138
Family Group
A group determined by birth, adoption, and marriage rather than self-selection (as in a peer group)
139
Fertility Rate
The average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population
140
Fixation
In Freudian psychology, the result of overindulgence or frustration during a psychosexual stage causing a neurotic pattern of personality based on that stage
141
Flat Affect
Behavior characterized by showing virtually no signs of emotion or affective expression
142
Fluid Intelligence
The ability to quickly identify relationships and connections and then use those relationships to make accurate deductions
143
Foraging
The act of searching for and exploiting food resources
144
Forebrain
A portion of the brain that is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes such as emotion and memory
145
Fornix
A long projection from the hippocampus that connects to other nuclei in the limbic system
146
Front Stage
In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are in front of an audience and perform roles that are in keeping with the image they hope to project about themselves
147
Frontal Lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls motor processing, executive function, and the integration of cognitive and behavioral processes
148
Functional Fixedness
The inability to identify uses of an object beyond its usual purpose
149
Functionalism
A theoretical framework that explains how parts of society fit together to create a cohesive whole
150
Fundamental Attribution Error
The general bias towards making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when analyzing another person's behavior
151
Game Theory
A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentives, and punishments
152
γ-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
A neurotransmitter associated with stabilizing and quelling brain activity
153
Ganglia
Collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the central nervous system
154
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
A theory that distinguishes between two major types of groups:
- Communities (Gemeinschaft): share beliefs, ancestry, or geography
- Societies (Gesellschaft): which work together toward a common goal
155
Gender
The set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with a biological sex
156
Generalization
In classical conditioning, the process by which two distinct but similar stimuli come to produce the same response
157
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual
158
Gestault Princples
Ways for the brain to infer missing parts of an incomplete picture
159
Globalization
The process of integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets
160
Group
A social entity that involves at least two people, usually those sharing common characteristics
161
Group Conformity
Compliance with a group's goals, even when the groups goals may be in direct opposition to an individual's goals
162
Group Polarization
The tendency toward decisions that are more extreme than the individual inclination of the group members
163
Groupthink
The tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas and ethics; based on pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group
164
Gyrus
A ridge of the cerebral cortex
165
Habituation
A decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to a stimulus
166
Hallucination
A decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to a stimulus
167
Hallucinogens
A group of drugs that cause distortions of reality in users, including lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin-containing mushrooms
168
Halo Effect
A cognitive bias in which judgements of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual
169
Heterosexual
A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the opposite sex
170
Heuristic
A rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to make decisions
171
Hindbrain
A portion of the brain that controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes
172
Hippocampus
A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning
173
Homosexual
A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the same sex
174
Hypnagogic Hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur when going to sleep; seen in narcolepsy
175
Hypnopompic Hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur when awakening from sleep; seen in narcolepsy
176
Hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness in which a person appears to be awake but is, in fact, in a highly suggestible state in which another person or event may trigger action by the person
177
Hypothalamus
A portion of the forebrain that controls homeostatic and endocrine functions by controlling the release of pituitary hormones
178
Id
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious resulting from basic, instinctual urges for sexuality and survival; operates under the pleasure principle and seeks instant gratification
179
Ideal Self
The person one would optimally like to be
180
Identity
A piece of an individual's self-concept based on the groups to which that person belongs and his or her relationships to others
181
Immediate Networks
Networks that are dense with strong ties; generally overlap with distant networks
182
Implicit Memory
Memory that does not require conscious recall; consists of skills and conditioned behaviors
183
Implicit Personality Theory
A theory that states that people tend to associate traits and behavior in others, and that people have the tendency to attribute their own beliefs, opinions, and ideas onto others
184
Impression Management
Behaviors that are intended to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object, or event
185
Incentive
A reward intended to motivate particular behaviors
186
Incidence
The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time; usually, new cases per 1000 at-risk people per year
187
Inclusive Fitness
A measure of reproductive success; depends on the number of offspring an individual has, how well they support their offspring, and how well their offspring can support others
188
Individual Discrimination
One person discriminating against a particular person or group
189
Inductive Reasoning
A form of cognition that utilizes generalizations to develop a theory
190
Ingratiation
An impression management strategy that uses flattery to increase social acceptance
191
In-Group
A social group to which a person experiences a sense of belonging or one in which he or she identifies as a member
192
Innate Behavior
A behavior that is genetically programmed or instinctive
193
Insomnia
Sleep disorder characterized by either an inability to fal asleep or difficulty staying asleep
194
Instinct
An innate behavioral response to stimuli
195
Instinctive Drift
The tendency of animals to resist learning when a conditioned behavior conflicts with an animal's instinctive behaviors
196
Institutional Discrimination
Discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution
197
Intelligence Quotient
Numerical measurement of intelligence, usually accomplished by some form of standardized testing
198
Interaction Process Analysis
A technique of observing and immediately classifying the activities of small groups
199
Interference
A retrieval error caused by the learning of information; can be proactive (old information causes difficulty learning new information) or retroactive (new information interferes with older learning
200
Interneuron
A neuron found between sensory and motor neurons; involved in reflex arcs
201
Interpersonal Attraction
The force that makes people like each other
202
Intrinsic Motivation
Motivation that is internal or that comes from within
203
Intuition
Perceptions about a situation that may or may not be supported by available evidence, but nonetheless perceived as information that may or may not be used to make a decision
204
Ipsilateral
On the same side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain)
205
James-Lange Theory
A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus results in psychological arousal, which then leads to a secondary response in which emotion is consciously experienced
206
Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)
The minimum noticeable difference in magnitude before one can perceive this difference; also called a difference threshold
207
Just-World Hypothesis
The cognitive bias that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people
208
Justice
In medical ethics, the tenet that the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly
209
Language
Spoken (verbal) or written (nonverbal) symbols, which are regulated according to certain rules of conduct or social norms and used for communication
210
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
An innate capacity for language acquisition that is triggered by exposure to language; part of the nativist (biological) perspective of language acquisition
211
Learned Helplessness
A state of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; often used as a model of depression
212
Learning (Behaviorist) Theory
A theory that attitudes are developed through forms of learning (direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning)
213
Libido
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the sex or life drive
214
Limbic System
A portion of the cerebrum that is associated with emotion and memory and includes the amygdala and hippocampus
215
Linguistic Relativity (Whorfian) Hypothesis
A hypothesis suggesting that one's perception of reality is largely determined by the content, form, and structure of language
216
Locus of Control
The characterization of the source of influence on the events in one's life; can be internal or external
217
Long-Term Potentiation
The strengthening of neural connections due to rehearsal or relearning; thought to be the neuropsychological basis of long-term memory
218
Maitenance Rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or to store it
219
Managing Appearances
An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with others to create a positive image
220
Manic Episode
A period of at least one week with prominent and persistent elevated or expansive mood and at least two other manic symptoms
221
Master status
The status with which a person is best identified
222
Mate Choice
The intersexual selection of a mate based on attraction and traits
223
Material Culture
The physical items one associates with a given cultural group
224
Material Support
Providing economic or other physical resources to aid a person as part of social support
225
Mating System
The way in which a group organizes its sexual behavior and sexual relationships
226
Meditation
A state of consciousness entered voluntarily, characterized by a decreased level of physiological arousal and a quieting of the mind
227
Medulla Oblongata
A portion of the brainstem that regulate vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
228
Melatonin
A serotonin derivative secreted by the pineal gland that is associated with sleepiness
229
Meninges
A thick layer of connective tissue that covers and protects the brain; composed of the dura matter, arachnoid matter, and pia matter
230
Mental Set
A tendency to repeat solutions that have yielded positive results at some point in the past
231
Meritocracy
A society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and acheivement
232
Mesencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the midbrain
233
Metencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the pons and cerebellum
234
Midbrain
A portion of the brainstem that manages sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli and gives rise to some cranial nerves
235
Misinformation Effect
A phenomenon in which memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding or recall
236
Mneumonic
A technique that aids in memory recall
237
Monogamy
An exclusive mating relationship
238
Morbidity
The burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease
239
Morphology
The structure of words, including their building blocks (prefixes, suffixes, and so on)
240
Mortality Rate
The number of deaths in a population per unit time
241
Motivation
The process of psychological and physical requirements, goals, or desires causing behavior
242
Motor Neuron
A neuron that transmits motor information from the spinal cord and brain to the periphery
243
Multiculturalism
The encouragement of multiple cultures in a society to enhance diversity
244
Multiple Intelligences
The idea that intelligence may exist in multiple areas, not just in the areas typically assessed by traditional intelligence quotient tests
245
Myencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the medulla oblangata
246
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by a lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep; also involves cataplexy and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
247
Needs
Physiological and psychological requirements that motivate and influence behavior
248
Neologism
Coining a new word; seen in schizophrenia
249
Network
A term used to describe the observable pattern of social relationships among individual units of analysis
250
Network Support
Providing a sense of belonging as part of social support
251
Neuroplasticity
Change in neural connection caused by learning or a response to injury
252
Neuropsychology
The study of the functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
253
Neuroticism
In trait theory, the degree to which an individual is prone to emotional arousal in stressful situations
254
Neurotransmitter
A chemical that transmits signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse
255
Night Terror
An experience of intense anxiety during sleep, causing the sleeper to scream in terror with no recall of the event in the morning; occurs during slow-wave sleep
256
Nondominant Hemisphere
The side of the brain associated with sensitivity to the emotional tone of language, intuition, creativity, music, and spatial processing; the right hemisphere in most individuals
257
Nonmaleficence
The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to avoid interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential for benefit
258
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep
Stages 1 through 4 of sleep; contains ever-slowing brain waves as one gets deeper into sleep
259
Nonverbal Communication
How people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without using words; examples include body language, gestures, and facial expressions
260
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter associated with wakefulness and alertness
261
Norms
Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior
262
Obedience
The changing of behavior of an individual based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure
263
Object Permanence
Knowledge that an object does not cease to exist even when the object cannot be seen; a milestone in cognitive development
264
Observational Learning
A form of learning in which behavior is modified as a result of watching others
265
Occipital Lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls visual processing
266
Operant Conditioning
A form of associative learning in which the frequency of behavior is modified using reinforcement or punishment
267
Opiates
A drug family consisting of naturally occurring, highly addictive, pain-reducing drugs used in both medical and recreational settings; opioids are synthetic versions of theses drugs
268
Opponent-Process Theory
A theory that states that the body will adapt to counteract repeated exposure to stimuli (or drug), such as seeing afterimages or ramping up the synthetic nervous system in response to a depressant
269
Organization
A specific type of group characterized by five traits: formality, hierarchy of ranked positions, large size, complex division of labor, and continuity beyond its members
270
Ought Self
The representation of the way others think one should be
271
Out-Group
A social group with which an individual does not identify
272
Overconfidence
A tendency to interpret one's decisions, knowledge, or beliefs as infallible
273
Parallel Processing
The ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding multiple aspects of a stimulus, such as color, shape, and motion
274
Parasomnia
A sleep disorder characterized by abnormal movement or behaviors during sleep
275
Parasympatheric Nervous System
A branch of the autonomic nervous system that promotes resting and digesting; associated with relaxed states, reductions in heart and respiration rates, and promotion of digestion
276
Parietal Lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls somatosensory and spatial processing
277
Parkinson's Disease
A disease characterized by slowness in movement, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike faces, cogwheel rigidity, and a shuffling gate; caused by destruction of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra
278
Peer Group
A group of self-selected equals that forms around common interests, ideas, preferences, and beliefs
279
Peer Pressure
The social influence place on individuals by other individuals who are considered equals
280
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The portion of the nervous system composed of nerve tissues and fibers outside the central nervous system
281
Personality Disorders
Disorders that involve patterns of behavior that are inflexible and maladaptive, causing distress or impaired function in at least two of the following: cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control
282
Phenotype
The expressed traits of an individual based on their genotype
283
Phonology
The set of sounds that compose a language
284
Pineal Gland
A brain structure located near the thalamus that secretes melatonin
285
Pituitary Gland
The "master gland" of the endocrine system that triggers hormone release in other endocrine glands
286
Polyandry
A mating system in which females have exclusive relationships with multiple males
287
Polygamy
A mating system in which one member of a sex has multiple exclusive opposite-sex relationships
288
Polygyny
A mating system in which a male has exclusive relationships with multiple females
289
Pons
A portion of the brainstem that relays information between the cortex and the medulla, regulates sleep, and carries some motor and sensory information from the face and neck
290
Poverty
A socioeconomic condition of low resource availability; in the United States, the poverty line is determined by the governments calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life
291
Power
The capacity to influence People through the real or threatened use of rewards and punishments; often based on unequal distribution of valued resources
292
Pragmatics
The ways in which use of language can be altered, depending on social context
293
Prejudice
An irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, formed prior to actual experience
294
Prevalence
The number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of time; usually, cases per 1000 people per year
295
Primacy Effect
The phenomenon of first impressions of person becoming more important than subsequent impressions
296
Primary Group
A group wherein interactions are direct, with close bonds, providing relationships to members that are very warm, personal, and intimate
297
Primary Stress Appraisal
An initial evaluation of the environment to determine if there is an associated threat
298
Priming
A retrieval cue by which recall is aided by a word or phrase that is semantically related to the desired memory
299
Projection
A defense mechanism by which individuals attribute their undesired feeling to others
300
Projection Area
A portion of the cerebral cortex that analyzes sensory input
301
Promiscuity
A mating system in which a member of one sex mates with any member of the opposite sex
302
Proprioception
The ability tell where one's body is in space
303
Prosencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the forebrain
304
Prosody
The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of speech
305
Proximity
An aspect of interpersonal attraction based on being physically close to someone
306
Psychological Disorders
A set of thoughts, feelings, or actions which are considered deviant by the culture at hand and which cause noticeable distress to the sufferer
307
Psychoticism
In trait theory, the measure of nonconformity or social deviance of an individual
308
Punishment
In operative conditioning, the use of an aversive stimulus designed to decrease the frequency of an undesired behavior
309
Race
A social construct based on phenotypic differences between groups of people; there may be either real or perceived differences
310
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
Sleep stage in which eyes move rapidly back and forth and psychological arousal levels are more similar to wakefulness than sleep; dreaming occurs during this stage
311
Rationalization
A defense mechanism by which individuals explain undesirable behaviors in a way that is self-justifying and socially acceptable
312
Reaction Formation
A defense mechanism by which individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites
313
Recency Effect
The phenomenon in which the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions
314
Reciprocal Determinism
In the social cognitive perspective, the notion that thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and environment interact to determine behavior in a given situation
315
Reciprocity
An aspect of interpersonal attraction based on the idea that we like people who we think like us
316
Recognition-Primed Decision Model
A decision-making model in which experience and recognition of similar situations on has already experience play a large role in decision-making and actions; also one of the explanations for the experience of intuition
317
Reference Group
The group to which an individual compares themself for a given identity
318
Reflex Arc
A neural pathway that controls reflexive actions
319
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)
A technique used to record patterns of neural activity based on blood flow to different areas of the brain measured using detection of inhaled radioactive markers
320
Regression
A defense mechanism by which an individual deals with stress by reverting to an earlier developmental state
321
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, the use of a stimulus designed to increase the frequency of a desired behavior
322
Relative Poverty
Poverty wherein one is poor in comparison to the larger population
323
Reliance on Central Traits
The tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics of the target to matter most to the perceiver
324
REM Rebound
A phenomenon in which one spends an increased time in REM sleep following a period of sleep deprivation
325
Representative Heuristic
A shortcut in decision making that relies on categorizing items of the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category
326
Repression
A defense mechanism by which the ego forces undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious mind
327
Response Bias
The tendency of subjects to respond systematically to a stimulus in a particular way due to nonsensory factors
328
Reticular Formation
A structure in the brainstem that is responsible for alertness
329
Retrieval
The process of demonstrating that information has been retained in memory; includes recall recognition, and relearning
330
Rhombencephalon
The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the hindbrain
331
Ritual
A formalized ceremony that usually involves specific material objects, symbolism, and additional mandates on acceptable behavior
332
Role
A set of beliefs, values, attitudes, and norms that define expectations for behavior associated with a given status
333
Role Conflict
A difficulty in satisfying role requirements or expectations among various roles
334
Role Partner
The person with whom one interacts while playing a particular role; each partner provides a different set of behavioral expectations
335
Role Performance
Carrying out the behaviors associated with a given role
336
Role Set
A group of role partners relative to a given status
337
Role-Taking
Roleplaying, by which children come to understand the perspectives of others and the ways in which these perspective may differ from their own
338
Schachter-Singer Theory
A theory of emotion that states that both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal must occur before an emotion is consciously experienced
339
Schema
An organized pattern of thought and behavior; one of the central concepts of Piaget's stages of cognitive development
340
Schizophrenia
A psychotic disorder characterized by gross distortions of reality and disturbances in the content and form of thought
341
Secondary Group
Groups wherein interaction are based on weaker, impersonal bonds
342
Secondary Stress Appraisal
The interpretation of primary stress appraisal to determine emotional response to a given threat
343
Selective Attention
The ability to focus on a single stimulus even while other stimuli are occurring simultaneously
344
Self-Concept
The sum of thoughts and feelings about oneself; includes self-schemata and appraisal of one's past and future self
345
Self-Disclosure
An aspect of interpersonal attraction or impression management in which one shares his or her fears, thoughts, and goals with another person in the hopes of being met with empathy and nonjudgement
346
Self Efficacy
The degree to which an individual sees him- or herself as being capable at a given skill or in a particular situation
347
Self-Esteem
An individual's feelings of self-worth
348
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The phenomenon of a stereotype creating an expectation of a particular group, which creates conditions that lead to confirmation of this stereotype
349
Self-Handicapping
An impression management strategy wherein one creates obstacles to avoid self-blame when he or she does not meet expectations
350
Self-Presentation
The process of displaying oneself to society through culturally accepted actions and behaviors
351
Self-Reference Effect
The tendency for individual to best recall information that they can relate to their own experiences
352
Self-Serving Bias
The idea that individuals will view their own success as being based on internal factors, while viewing failures as being based on external factors
353
Semantic Network
The organization of information int he brain by linking concepts with similar characteristics and meaning
354
Semantics
The association of meaning with a word
355
Sensation
Transduction of physical stimuli into neurological signals
356
Sensitive Period
A time during which environmental input has a maximal impact on the development of a particular ability
357
Sensory memory
Visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) stimuli briefly stored in memory; fades very quickly unless attention is paid to the information
358
Sensory Neuron
A neuron that transmits information from sensory receptors to the central nervous system
359
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to better remember items presented at the beginning or end of a list; related to the primacy and recency effects
360
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter associated with mood, sleep, eating, and dreaming
361
Sexual Orientation
The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes
362
Shaping
In operant conditioning, the process of conditioning a complicated behavior by rewarding successive approximations of the behavior
363
Signal Detection Theory
A theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context play a role in the perception of stimuli
364
Similarity
An aspect of interpersonal attraction based on being alike in attitudes, intelligence, education, height, age, religion, appearance, or socioeconomic status
365
Situational (External) Attributions
Attributions that relate to the features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure, rather than to features of the individual
366
Sleep Apnea
A sleep disorder in which a person may cease to breathe while sleeping; may be due to obstruction or a central (neurological) cause
367
Sleep Cycle
A single complete progression through each stage of sleep
368
Slow-Wave Sleep
Consists of NREM sleep stages 3 and 4; also called delta-wave sleep
369
Social Action
Actions and Behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around
370
Social Capital
The investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards
371
Social Class
A category of people with a shared socioeconomic background that exhibit similar lifestyles, job opportunities, attitudes, and behaviors
372
Social Cognitive Theory
A theory that attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, cognition, and the environment
373
Social Construction Model
A theory of emotional expression that assumes there are no biologically wired emotions; rather, they are based on experiences and situational context alone
374
Social Constructionism
A theoretical approach that uncovers the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the formation of their perceived social reality
375
Social Facilitation
The tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that others are around
376
Social Mobility
The movement of individuals in the social hierarchy through changes in income, education, or occupation
377
Social Movements
Philosophies that drive large numbers of people to organize to promote or resist social change
378
Social Perception/Cognition
Understanding the thoughts and motives of other people present in the social world
379
Social Stratification
Organization of societies into a hierarchical system, usually based on socioeconomic status and social class
380
Social Support
The perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network
381
Socialization
The process of developing and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
382
Somatic Nervous System
The voluntary branch of the peripheral nervous system, which consists of sensory and motor neurons used to control bodily movements
383
Somatosensation
The sense of touch, which contains multiple modalities; pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature
384
Somnambulism
A sleep disorder in which one carries out actions in their sleep; also known as sleep walking
385
Source-Monitoring Error
A memory error by which a person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context by which the details were gained; often causes a person to remember events that happened to someone else as having happened to themself
386
Spacing Effect
The phenomenon of retaining large amounts of information when the amount of time between sessions of relearning is increased
387
Spatial Inequality
A form of social stratification across territories and population that can involve residential, environmental, or global components
388
Spreading Activation
The unconscious activation of closely linked nodes of a semantic network
389
State-Dependent Memory
A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the same state of emotion or intoxication as when encoding took place
390
Status
A position in society used to classify individuals
391
Stereotype Threat
A feeling of anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group
392
Stereotypes
Attitudes and impressions that are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals
393
Stigma
The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences in social characteristics from the rest of society
394
Stimulant
A drug that causes an increase in central nervous system arousal
395
Stimulus
Any energy pattern that is sensed in some way by the body; includes visual, auditory, and physical sensations, among others
396
Storage
The retention of encoded information; divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory
397
Stressors
Biological elements, external conditions, or events that lead to a stress response
398
Subcultures
Groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong
399
Sublimation
A defense mechanism by which unacceptable urges are transformed into socially acceptable behaviors
400
Subliminal Perception
Perception of a stimulus below a threshold (usually the threshold of conscious perception)
401
Sulcus
A fold in the cerebral cortex
402
Superego
In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind focused on idealism, perfectionism, and societal norms
403
Symbolic Culture
The nonmaterial culture that represents a group of people; expressed through ideas and concepts
404
Symbolic Ethnicity
An ethnic identity that is only relevant on special occasions or in specific circumstances and that does no impact everyday life
405
Symbolic Interactionism
A theoretical framework that studies the way individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols
406
Sympathetic Nervous System
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that controls the fight-or-flight response; associated with stressful situation that increase heart and respiration rates and decrease digestion
407
Syntax
The way in which words are organized to create meaning
408
System for Multiple Level Observation of Groups (SYMLOG)
A method for studying group dynamics; focuses on three fundamental dimensions of interaction:
- Dominance vs submission
- Friendliness vs unfriendliness
- Instrumentally controlled vs emotionally expressive
409
Tactical Self
In impression management, the person one markets him- or herself to be when adhering to others' expectations
410
Telencephalon
A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the cerebrum
411
Temporal Lobe
A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls auditory processing, memory processing, emotional control, and language
412
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
The main active ingredient in marijuana
413
Thalamus
A portion of the forebrain that serves as a relay and sorting station for sensory information, and then transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
414
Theory of Mind
The ability to see how another's mind works
415
Tolerance
Decreased response to a drug after physiological adaptation
416
Transduction
Conversion of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other stimuli to electrical signals in the nervous system
417
Transformational Grammar
A linguistic theory that focuses on how changes in word order affect meaning
418
Two-Point Threshold
The minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli
419
Universal Emotions
Emotions that are recognized by all cultures; include happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, and anger
420
Urbanization
The process whereby large numbers of people migrate to and establish residence in relatively dense areas of population
421
Value
What one deems important in life
422
Ventricle
An internal cavity within the brain; cells lining it produce cerebrospinal fluid
423
Verbal Communication
The use of spoken or verbal language
424
Weber's Law
A theory of perception that states that there is a constant ratio between the change in stimulus magnitude needed to produce a just noticeable difference and the magnitude of the original stimulus
425
Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndorme
A condition resulting from chronic thiamine (B1) deficiency, which is common in alcoholics; characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of coordination
426
Wernicke's Aphasia
The loss of language comprehension, resulting in fluid production of language without meaning
427
Wernicke's Area
A brain region located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for language comprehension
428
Zone of Proximal Development
Those skills which a child has not yet master but can accomplish with the help of a more knowledgable other
