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Veterinary Parasitology > Vocab/Parasite Info > Flashcards

Vocab/Parasite Info Flashcards

1
Q

Fascioliasis

A
  • *Fasciola Hepatica *(“live fluke”)
  • Chronic
    • Cattle, sheep
      • sheep get bottle jaw
    • anemia
    • eggs in feces
    • hepatic fibrosis
  • Acute
    • Sheep
      • doesn’t acquire immunity
    • flukes accumulate → severe disease
      • Traumatic hepatitis
      • Death (intra-abdominal hemorrhage)
    • No eggs in feces (prepatent)
      • Can’t diagnose w/ fecal sedimentation
  • Subacute
    • less sudden onset of anemia, hypoproteinemia
    • Eggs in feces
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1
Q

*Dirofilaria immitis *(heartworm) Diagnostics

A
  • History, clinical signs
  • Detection of Ag
    • SNAP, Witness, Solostep, Dirocheck, Snap 4DX
    • Test annually
    • 5-7 mos after infection
  • Detection of circulating Mff
  • Imaging
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2
Q

Order Anoplura

A

Sucking Lice

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Head is narrower than thorax
  • Feed on blood
  • Stenoxenous - mammals only
    • Some are even region specific on animal (ex. head, body, pubic area)
  • Simple metomorphosis
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3
Q

Trichinella spiralis Life Cycle

A

Female deposits larvae in intestinal wall → larvae enter lymphatics → Thoracic duct → Heart → Lungs → Heart → Systemic circulation → lavae encyst in striated muscle (encapsulated by nurse cell) → excyst upon digestion by different host → mature in small intestine

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3
Q

Ag test: Negative

Microfilariae test: Positive

(*Dirofilaria immitis *aka heartworm Dx)

A
  • Mff are those of another species, low in number
  • Mff acquired transplacentally, low in number (young dogs, rare)
  • Adult worms removed/died, Mff persist
  • Test contamination
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4
Q

Phylum Apicomplexa

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Distinct nucleus
  • Subpellicular tubules (movement)
  • Apical complex
  • Oocytes (NOT eggs!)
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5
Q

Cytauxzoon felis

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order piroplasmida
  • DH: domestic cats (esp. feral, farm cats)
  • IH: *Dermacentor variabilis *(dog tick), *Amblyomma americanum *(lone star tick)
  • Reservoir host: bobcat
  • Target organ: macrophages and RBCs
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5
Q

Class 3 Heartworm Disease

A

Moderate to severe

  • Cardiac cachexia (wasting)
  • Constant fatigue
  • Persistent cough
  • Dyspnea
  • +/- signs of R sided heart failure
    • acites
    • jugular vein distention (JVD)
  • Significant anemia (
  • Proteinuria (>2+)
  • Rads
    • RV +/- RA enlargement
    • PA enlargement
  • Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE)
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6
Q

*Eimeria bovis *& Eimeria zuernii

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order Eucoccidiida
  • DH: cattle (esp. calves)
  • Target organ: terminal ileum, colon
  • Very resistant oocyte
  • Diarrhea, anorexia, dull, dehydrated, dec. BW, intestinal lesions, fever, desentery, tenesmus, possible death
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7
Q

Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease/American trypanosomiasis) Dx

A
  • TESA/Wester blot
  • ELISA
  • IFA
  • IHA
  • Blood smear
  • Xenodiagnosis - let clean Reduviid bug feed on dog, check bug for development of infection
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8
Q

Tick Paralysis

A
  • Ascending, flaccid paralysis
  • Neurotoxin in tick saliva
    • Disrupts nerve synapses in spinal cord
  • Reversible
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9
Q

Nocturnal Periodicity

A

Mff present in blood during evening

(Dirofilaria immitis, heartworm)

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9
Q

Toxoplamsa gondii Clinical Signs (small ruminants)

A
  • Sheep
    • infective ovine abortion
    • inflammation of fetal cotyledons
  • Goats
    • abortions
    • fever
    • lethargy
    • diarrhea
    • dec. appetite
    • death
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10
Q

*Dirofilaria immitis *(heartworm) Pathogenicity

A
  • Vessel wall irritation
  • Produce pro-inflammatory molecules → induce inflammation of vessels
    • Villous endarteritis
  • Vascular resistance - inc. cardiac workload
  • Dec. cardiac output - dec. organ perfusion w/ blood
  • Coughing
  • Hemoptysis - blood in sputum
  • Exercise intolerance
  • Vena Cava syndrome
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10
Q

*Sarcocystis *spp. Clinical Signs

A
  • Sheep - usually acute
    • anemia, anorexia, fever, death
  • Goats
    • weakness, anorexia, fever, death
    • abortion
  • Pigs - mild infection
    • usually asymptomatic
    • poor growth, meath quality, & wt. gain reduced
    • abortion
  • Humans
    • anorexia, ab. pain, diarrhea
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11
Q

Phylum Platyhelminthes

A

Flatworms

  • Digestive system is blind sac
  • Usually hermaphroditic
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11
Q

Parasite Concerns During Pregnancy

A
  • Impact on puppies
    • Toxocara canis (round worms) - transplacental
  • Impact on maternal health
    • Toxocara canis
    • Ancylostoma caninum - transmammary risk of infection post-partum
    • Heartworm disease
    • Fleas
    • Ticks
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12
Q

Complete Periodicity

A

Mff may dissappear from peripheral blood at some point in 24 hr period

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12
Q

Tritrichomonas blagburni (Feline trichomoniasis) Dx

A
  • Direct fecal smear
  • Culture
  • PCR
  • Colonic biopsy
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13
Q

Diurnal Periodicity

A

Mff present in blood during daytime

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14
Q

Ectoparasite

A

Parasite lives outside of host. Infestation.

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16
Q

Definitive Host

A

Adult/Sexually mature parasite resides in/on this host

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16
Q

Class 1 Heartworm Disease

A

Asymptomatic to mild

  • No rad signs
  • No abnormalities in CBC/chemistry
  • No anemia
  • Slight loss of condition
  • Fatigue on exercise
  • Cough (rare)
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17
Q

Parasitiasis

A

Parasite present in host but no outward signs of disease

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17
Q

Homo/monoxenous

A

Only 1 host (definitive).

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18
Q

Pediculosis

A

Lice infestation

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19
Q

Ovoviviparous

A
  • Characteristic of nematodes
  • Release egg w/ single L1 larvae
  • Ex. Strongyloides westeri
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19
Q

Toxoplasma gondii Life Cycle

A
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21
Q

Class Trematoda

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • “Flukes”
  • All parasitic
  • Endoparasites
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22
Q

Parasitism vs. Predation

A

Ideally, parasite does not want to kill host (aka it’s food source)

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22
Q

Heterobilharzia americana

“Canine Blood Fluke”

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class trematoda
  • IH: aquatic snail
  • DH: Dog, bobcat, raccoon
    • Often asymptomatic
    • D/V, wt. loss, lethargy, hypercalcemia, skin irritation, inflammation
  • Target organs: mesenteric & hepatic veins
  • Dioecious
  • “Swimmer’s itch” (cercarial dermatitis) in humans
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23
Q

Microfilariae (Mff)

A

Prelarval stage of *Dirofilaria immitis *(heartworm) found circulating in blood

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24
Q

Ag test: Positive

Microfilariae test: Negative

(*Dirofilaria immitis *aka heartworm Dx)

A
  • Maturing infection, Mff not yet in circulation
  • Use of preventative or microfilaricide w/ out removing adult worms
  • Unisex/Occult (female) infection
  • Dog’s immune system responds to Mff’s
  • Failure to use Mff concentration test
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24
Q

*Giardia *spp.

A
  • Phylum protista
  • Direct life cycle
  • DH: most mammals, birds, amphibians
  • Vegetative stage:
    • 2 nuclei
    • 8 flagella
    • Ventral groove
    • Looks like smiley face
    • In loose feces
  • Cyst stage
    • resistant
    • in normal feces
    • 4 nuclei
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24
Q

Siphonapterosis

A

Flea infestation

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25
Q

Giardia Clinical Signs

A
  • Chronic - villus atrophy
  • Intermittent diarrhea
    • loose
    • mucoid, not watery
  • Majority are asymptomatic
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26
Q

Oviparous

A
  • Characteristic of nematodes
  • Releases egg with single stage or morula
  • Ex. Haemonchus contortus
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27
Q

Tritrichomonas blagburni

“Feline Trichomoniasis”

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • DH: cats (esp. younger)
  • No known IH, transmission unknown
  • Large-bowel disease
    • chronic diarrhea
      • spontaneous resolution
      • relapse
    • tenesmus
    • flatulence
    • Anal irritation
    • Fecal incontinence
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27
Q

Stomoxys calcitrans

A

“Stable Fly”

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Order diperta
  • Family muscidae
  • Hosts: domestic animals, humans
  • Males and Females feed on blood
  • Mechanical vector
  • Terrestrial larvae (decaying plant material)
  • Affected by insecticides
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27
Q

Heartworm Treatment Follow Up

A
  • Treat Mff
    • macrocyclic lactone @ sufficient dosage
      • minimize potential for resistance development
    • monitor for anaphylaxis
    • minimize spread of disease within 1 mile radius
  • Retest for heartworm 6 mos. post-treatment
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28
Q

Incomplete Periodicity

A

Mff never dissappear completely from peripheral blood at some point in 24 hr period

(Dirofilaria immitis, heartworm)

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29
Q

Superfamily Strongyloidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Medium-sized
  • Large mouths
  • Prominent copulatory bursa (males)
  • Direct life cycle
    • often extensive larval migration
  • Non-larvated eggs in feces
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29
Q

Cystoisospora (Isospora) spp.

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order Eucoccidiida
  • Stenoxenous
  • Monoxenous (direct life cycle)
  • DH: dogs, cats, pigs, humans (esp. AIDS patients)
  • Sexual & asexual reproduction
  • Oocyst - 2 sporocysts w/ 4 sporozoites each
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30
Q

Heartworm Treatment Protocols

A

Class 1, 2: Fast kill

  • Admin deep IM injection twice, 24 hrs apart
  • Rest 1 mos. post-final treatment

Class 3: Slow kill

  • Admin single dose immiticide, followed in 1 mos. by 2 injections of immiticide, 24 hrs apart
  • Rest 1 mos. post-final treatment

Caval syndrome

  • sx removal of heartworm from RA (don’t break them! can induce major allergic response!!)
  • slow kill treatment

Pain management for deep IM injections

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31
Q

Class Arachnida

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • 2 body regions
    • head
    • body
  • Simple metamorphosis
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32
Q

Caval Syndrome (Class 4 Heartworm Disease)

A

Severe

  • Unstable animal
  • Poor prognosis
  • Cardiac cachexia (wasting)
  • Constant fatigue
  • Persistent cough
  • Dyspnea
  • +/- signs of R sided heart failure
    • Acites
    • Jugular vein distention (JVD)
  • Anemia (
  • Proteinuria (>2+)
  • Rad signs
    • RV +/- RA enlargement
    • PA enlargement
  • Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE)
  • Adult worms detected in echocardiogram
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33
Q

Visceral Larval Migrans (VLM)

A
  • Zoonosis of canine ascarid in humans (paratenic host)
    • children that eat dirt
  • Chronic granulomatous lesions
    • often in lier, lungs, brain (NLM), eye (OLM)
    • Hepatomegaly
    • Wt. loss
    • Dec. appetite
    • Persistant cough
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34
Q

*Dirofilaria immitis *(heartworm) Life Cycle

A

Mff released by female worm → Mff enter circulation → Mosquito feeds on infected dog → Mff become L3 → Mosquito feeds on other dog, infects it with L3 → L3 molts during migration to heart & lungs → Adult worms mature in heart & lungs → Adult worms mate → produce Mff

Prepatent period: 5.5-7 mos

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35
Q

Facultative Parasite

A

Capable of living either free or as a parasite

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35
Q

Phylum Sarcomastigophora

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Distinct nucleus
  • Move via flagella
  • Asexual repro.
  • Direct & indirect life cycles
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36
Q

Taenia pisiformis

“Rabbit Tapeworm/Abdominal Bladderworm”

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class cestoda
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • IH: rabbit, hare
  • DH: dog
    • Infected by ingestion of raw/undercooked meat
  • Metacestode/larvae: cysticercus
  • Egg: Taeniid type
  • Hexacanth embryo (oncosphere)
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37
Q

Ancylostoma caninum

“Hookworm”

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Superfamily strongyloidea
  • DH: dog
  • Target organ: small intestine
  • 3 pairs of scleritized teeth
  • Non-embryonated egg shed in feces → embryonates → L1 develops → hatches → molts to L2 → matures to L3, remains ensheathed (no molt!) → infects DH
  • Black/tarry diarrhea, poor appetite, hemorrhagic pneumonitis
  • CLM in humans
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39
Q

Urban Cycles

A

Involves parasites of companion/food animals

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40
Q

Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease/American trypanosomiasis) Life Cycle

A

Trypomastigotes passed in feces of IH → enter host via bite wound, scratch, mucus membrane → Trypomastigotes enter circulation → enter cells of spleen, liver, lymphatics, muscle → cell rupture, trypomastigotes remain in circulation OR reinfect → Epimastigotes → replication via binary fission

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41
Q

Toxocara canis

“Canine Ascarid”

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Superfamily ascaroidea
  • DH: dog
  • Target organ: small intestine
  • Egg w/ L2 is infective stage
  • Death is rare
  • Pneumonia, V/D, pot-belly, focal lesions in CNS → neurologic disorders
  • Zoonotic: VLM
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41
Q

Sarcocystis spp.

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order eucoccidiida
  • IH: herbivore (ingests sporocysts in DH feces)
    • Target organs: schizonts in endothelal cells of blood vessels of brain, liver kidney. Form sarcocysts in skeletal & cardiac muscle.
  • DH: carnivore
    • Target organ: intestines
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42
Q

Patent Period

A

time parasite can be detected in host

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42
Q

Rhiphicephalus sanquineus

“Brown Dog Tick”

A
  • 3 host tick
    • mainly dogs
  • Tick paralysis
  • Disease vector
  • Only tick species to infest homes
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43
Q

Eimeria bovis

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order Eucoccidiida
  • DH: cattle (esp. calves)
  • Target organ: terminal ileum, colon
  • Gametogony causes majority of damage
  • Oocysts present when disease begins
  • Prepatent period: 5-15 days
  • Mucosal damage
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44
Q

Canine Ascarid Infection - Colostral/Lactogenic Transmission

A
  • Nematode
  • Hypobiotic L2 in mammary tissue → puppy ingests colostrum → L2 go directly to stomach → small intestine
  • No migration
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45
Q

Parasitic Gastroenteritis (PGE)

A
  • Caused by Trichostrongyloid nematodes
    • Esp. Ostertagia ostertagi
  • Diarrhea (cattle > sheep, goats)
  • Anemia (cattle < sheep, goats
  • Bottle jaw
  • Weanlings at grass are most susceptible
  • Adults fairly immune
  • Total eradication unlikely, must move to worm-free pasture
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46
Q

Hookworm Infection - Skin Penetration

A
  • Strongyloid nematode, L3
  • Dogs
    • Blood/lymphatic vessels → heart → lungs → alveoli → bronchi → swallowed → GI
    • mature in small intestine
  • Dogs >3 mos.
    • Blood/lymphatic vessels → encyst in muscle (hypobiotic)
    • Populate mammary glands
    • Repopulate small intestine
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47
Q

Hookworm Infection - Paratenic host

A
  • Strongyloid nematode, L3
  • Ingests rodent host
    • Hypobiotic L3 (no development in rodent)
  • Adult matures in small intestine
  • No migration
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48
Q

Vena Cava Syndrome

A

Too many adult heartworms in R atrium and vena cava. Obstruct blood flow & interfere w/ tricuspid valve closure.

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48
Q

Ticks

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class arachnida
  • Order acarina
  • All stages feed on blood
  • Tick paralysis
  • Transstadial, transovarial disease transmission
  • Body division
    • Head - capitulum
    • Body - idiosoma (fused cephalothorax & abdomen)
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49
Q

Parasitism

A

Relationship where one species, the parasite, lives on or in another species, the host, and may cause harm. Parasite is metabolically dependent on host.

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50
Q

Dirofilaria immitis (heartworm) Tx

A
  • Melarsomine dihydrochloride (Immiticide)
    • Kills adult worms (nothing younger than L4)
  • Monthly use of preventatives - “slow kill”
    • Alternative tx, takes mos. to years to work
  • Surgical removal of worms
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51
Q

Sarcoptes scabiei

“Scabies”

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class arachnida
  • Order acarina
  • DH: cattle, goats, pigs (most mammals)
  • Target organ: tunnel through dermid
  • Eggs/feces can induce hypersensitivity rxn
  • Long, non-jointed pedicles
    • Females: suckers on pairs 1, 2
    • Males: suckers on pairs 1, 2, 4
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52
Q

Canine Ascarid Infection - Prenatal/Transuterine Transmission

A
  • Nematode
  • Hypobiotic L2 mobilize in late pregnancy → liver of fetus → molt to L3 → in lungs @ birth → alveoli → bronchioles → trachea → coughed up → swallowed → stomach → L4, L5 in small intestines → adult
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53
Q

Indirect Life Cycle

A

1 or more intermediate hosts

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53
Q

Flea Control

A
  • Host-targeted insecticides
    • Kill larvae & adults
  • Environmental insecticides
  • Mechanical methods
    • Vacuum, wash pet bedding
    • Remove vegetation, litter
    • Prevent wildlife interaction
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54
Q

Heartworm Treatment

A
  • Prevent L3, L4 from maturing
    • Macrocyclic lactone
    • Avoid avermectin at first
      • Kill all Mff at once → major allergic response
  • Weaken the adult heartworm
    • Tetracycline
    • more susceptable to immiticide
  • Prevent emboli formation
    • rest until 1 most post-immiticide treatment
  • Optimize efficacy of immiticide
    • Allow L5 to become mature adults

IMMITICIDE TOXIC TO CATS

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55
Q

*Giardia *Life Cycle

A

Ingestion of cyst → excystation in duodenum → replication via binary fission → encystment in lower intestinal tract → infective cysts passed in feces

Prepatent period: 1 wk

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56
Q

Cytauxzoon felis Pathogenicity/Clinical Signs

A
  • Fatal form:
    • fever (up to 105ºF)
    • depression, lethargy
    • anorexia
    • jaundice
    • death < 1 wk
  • Non-fatal form:
    • may be asymptomatic
    • similar signs as fatal form
    • persistent parasitemia
  • Schizogenous phase most destructive
    • Infected macrophages can block blood vessels
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57
Q

Schistosomes

A
  • Trematode
  • Tubular body
  • Dioecious
  • Female fits into central groove of male
  • Mature in blood of DH
58
Q

Hookworm Infection - Oral

A
  • Strongyloid nematode, L3
  • Rare transmission, not usually found in nature
  • No larval migration
  • Adults mature in small intestine
  • Prepatent period: 15-18 days
59
Q

Euryxenous

A

Wide host range

60
Q

Occult Infection (heartworm)

A
  • Hidden infection
  • Single sex or low number of Dirofilaria immitis
  • Mff not detectable in peripheral blood
60
Q

Toxoplasma gondii Clinical Signs (cats)

A
  • Studies indicate cats shed once (sometimes relapses occur, but rare)
  • Fever
  • Anorexia
  • Jaundice
  • Ab. pain/discomfort
  • Hepatitis
  • Pancreatitis
  • Neurological problemts
  • Respiratory interference
  • Death
61
Q

Cysticercus

A
  • Class cestoda (tapeworms)
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • Larva/metacestode
  • Single, invaginated scolex
  • Vertebrate IH
62
Q

Class Arachnida, Order Acarina

A

Ticks & Mites

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Simple metamorphosis
64
Q

Subclass Digenea Life Cycle

A
  • IH (snail): miracidium → Sporocyst → Redia → Daughter rediae/Cercariae
  • Environment: Cercaria → Metacercaria (infective stage)
65
Q

Complex (Complete) Metamorphosis

A

Phylum arthropoda

Class insecta

66
Q

Order Mallophaga

A

Chewing/Biting Lice

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Head wider than thorax
  • Simple metamorphosis
  • Feed on dead skin
  • Stenoxenous
    • Spp. affecting birds, mammals
67
Q

Tritrichomonas foetus Clinical Signs

A

Bulls (chronic carriers) - often asymptomatic

Cows

  • vaginitis
  • cervicitis
  • endometritis
  • pyometra
  • mucopurulent discharge
  • early or late term abortion
68
Q

Cystoisospora suis

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order Eucoccidiida
  • Direct life cycle
  • DH: pigs (esp. suckling piglets)
  • Infected via contaminated feces
  • Pasty/liquid diarrhea (no blood in feces)
  • Villous atrophy, necrotic enteritis, crypt hyperplasia, secondary infection
70
Q

Stenoxenous

A

Narrow host range

72
Q

Superfamily Trichuroidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Short, fat posterior ends
  • Long, whip-like anterior end
  • Beaded esophagus (stichocyte)
  • Usually direct life cycle
73
Q

Chronic American Trypanosomiasis

A
  • Trypanosoma cruzi in dogs
  • No circulating trypomastigotes (harder to dx)
  • Dilated, enlarged heart
  • Arrhythmia
  • Lethargy
  • Respiratory difficulties
  • Anemia
74
Q

Frass

A
  • Blood excreted by adult fleas
  • Reddish-black pellets in the haircoat
  • AKA “flea dirt”
  • Eaten by flea larvae
74
Q

Heartworm Parasite Control Treatment Recommendations

A
  • Year-round broad-spectrum parasite control for heartworm, intestinal parasites, ticks
  • Anthelmentic tx every 2 wks until 2 mos. old, then monthly
  • Maintain pregnant/nursing dams on broad-spectrum control products
76
Q

Rediae/Redia

A
  • Trematode (digenea)
  • In snail (IH)
  • Stage doesn’t always occur
  • Produces daughter rediae or cercariae
77
Q

Family Argasidae

A

Soft-bodied Ticks

  • Phylum arachnida
  • Order acarina
  • Can’t see head from dorsal view
78
Q

Eimeria zuernii

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order Eucoccidiida
  • DH: cattle (esp. calves)
  • Target organ: terminal ileum, colon
  • Schizogony causes majority of damage
  • No oocysts present yet (animal typically doesn’t live long enough for gametogenesis to occur)
  • Bloody diarrhea (can “shoot out” when calf coughs)
  • Mucosal damage
79
Q

Sarcocystis spp. Life Cycle

A
80
Q

Order Diptera

A
  • Phylum arthopoda
  • Class insecta
  • “True”/Two-winged flies (includes mosquitoes)
  • Ectoparasites
    • Permanant
    • Temporary
  • Perform myiasis
  • Complex metamorphosis
82
Q

Diplylidium caninum

“Cucmber Seed/Double-pored Tapeworm”

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class cestoda
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • IH: flea, dog louse
  • DH: Dogs, cats, humans (esp. children)
  • Target organ: small intestine
  • Metacestode/larvae: cysticercoid
  • Armed scolex w/ 4 circular suckers
  • Egg packets
  • Prepatent stage: 2-3 wks
  • Usually not pathogenic, may itch due to migrating proglottids
  • Heavy infections: constipation, diarrhea, pot-belly
84
Q

Hookworm Infection - Lactogenic

A
  • Strongyloid nematode, L3
  • L3’s in milk
  • Hypobiotic larvae migrate to mammary gland
  • Adult matures in small intestine
    • No migration
85
Q

Periparturient Rise (Haemonchus contortus)

A
  • Massive outpouring of worm eggs (nematode trichostrongyle H. contortus) by ewes/does while lactating
    • Prolactin may suppress immunity to worms
  • Sources
    • Hypobiotic larvae resuming development
    • Ingestion of larvae that have overwintered on pasture
    • Increased egg output from existing worm population
  • Worm load maintained rather than expelled → massive pasture contamination of L3
86
Q

Toxoplasma gondii Dx

A
  • Fecal float
  • ELISA, IFA
    • 1 pos. serum sample indicates past infetion
    • 16x rise in titer in serum taken 2-4wks after 1st sample indicates acute, acquired infection
  • Biopsy
  • PCR
87
Q

Acute American Trypanosomiasis

A
  • *Trypanosoma cruzi *in dogs
  • Trypomastigotes circulating
  • Myocarditis
  • Pale MM
  • lethargy
  • Hepatomegaly
  • Splenomegaly
89
Q

Hookworm Infection - Prenatal/Transplacental

A
  • Strongyloid nematode, L3
  • Rare
  • L3 in blood stream → placenta → feus
  • Hypobiotic larvae
  • Occurs during pregnancy
91
Q

Evolution of Parasitism

A
  1. Parasite co-evolved w/ host - began as symbiotic relationship?
  2. Parasite has recently colonized the host
    • more likely to be pathogenic
    • result of keeping animals in environment to which they are not well adapted
92
Q

*Cryptosporidium *spp. Oocyst Erradication

A
  • Heat to 64-72.4°C
  • Freeze to -20°C
  • UV irradiation
  • Chlorine
  • Hypochlorite
  • Hydrogen Peroxide
  • Iodine (not very well)
  • Does NOT work:
    • ethanol
    • isopropanol
    • Lysol
    • Pine-sol
    • formaldehyde
    • betadine
92
Q

Mites

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class arachnida
  • Order acarina
  • Larva - 6 legs
  • Adults - 8 legs
  • Pedicels - legs/stalks (used to ID)
  • Body divisions
    • Head - gnathsoma
    • Body - idiosoma
94
Q

Phylum Nematoda

A
  • “Roundworms”
  • Dioecious
    • Females > males
  • Complete digestive system
  • Cervical alae
  • Non-segmented
  • Copulatory bursa (males) - hold onto females
  • Spicules - equivalent to penis
  • Mouth possibilities
    • Sclertotized buccal capsule
    • Lips
    • Teeth
    • Dentigerous ridges
94
Q

*Cytauxzoon felis *Life Cycle

A

Tick ingests piroplamsm in RBCs of infected host → Piroplasms travel to salivary glands of tick → asexual reproduction → tick feeds on DH → prioplasms develop into schizonts (in macrophages) → merozoites released upon macrophage rupture → enter RBCs → develop into piroplams

Transstadial transmission: tick can pick up protozoa in its larval or nymphoid stage and continue carrying the protozoa through its molts

95
Q

Family Ixodidae

A

Hard Ticks

  • Head visible
  • Scutum
    • Covers all dorsal part of male
    • Covern cranio-dorsal part of females
    • Ornate or inornate
  • Hypotome - mouthpart
  • Anal groove
  • Festoons - wavy ridges on caudal edge
96
Q

Superfamily Dracunculoidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Female in SubQ
  • Indirect life cycle
  • Ex. Guinea worm
96
Q

Ostertagia ostertagi

“Brown Stomach Worm/Bankrupt Worm”

A
  • Phylum nemotoda
  • Superfamily trichostrongyloidea (HOTC)
  • DH: ruminants
  • Target organ: adults in lumen, larvae in gastric glands
  • Modest anemia
  • Protein losing gastropathy
  • Larvae destroy gastric glands during development
    • Protein leaked into abomasum, pepsinogen leaked into serum
    • HCl-producing cells damaged
      • Abomasal pH goes neutral
      • Pepsinogen not converte to pepsin (decreased protein digestion)
      • Loss of acid bacteriostasis (bacterial overgrowth)
97
Q

Ixodes scapularis

“Black Legged Tick”

A
  • AKA Deer tick
  • 3 host tick
    • birds
    • small mammals
    • cattle, sheep, horses
  • Disease vector
    • Lyme
  • Super tiny
99
Q

Obligatory Parasite

A

Must live as parasite to survive.

100
Q

Spirometra mansonoides

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class cestoda (tapeworms)
  • Order pseudophyllidea
  • 1st IH: copepod
  • 2nd IH: frog, rat, snake
    • Ingests 1st IH
    • encyst in muscle
  • DH: dogs, cats
  • Target organ: small intestine
  • Paratenic host: humans
    • Ingest copepod/muscle of 2nd IH: encysts in muscle tissue, periorbital area
  • Coiled, gravid uterus
  • Eggs: operculated, contain coracidium (emerges upon contact w/ water)
  • Prepatent period: 7-14 days
  • Most cases asymptomatic
  • V/D, wt loss may occur
101
Q

Cutaneous Larval Migrans (CLM)

A
  • Zoonosis of Ancylostoma spp. (strongyloid nematode)
  • “Sand worms”, “plumber’s itch”, “creeping eruption”
  • L3 penetrates skin and migrates looking for target
  • Leaves winding, red pruitic lesions
  • Rarely enter small intestine to mature
102
Q

Trichinella spiralis

“Trichina Worm”

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • DH & IH: pigs, rats, bears, wild boar, humans, horses, foxes, other mammals
  • Target organ: adults in small intestine; larvae in striated muscle
  • Larviparous
  • Dx: muscle biopsy, skin sensitivity (humans), ELISA, slaughterhouse inspection
104
Q

Tritrichomonas foetus Dx

A
  • Recover organisms
    • Females: vaginal, uterine flush
    • Males: prepucial wash
  • PCR
  • Direct smear
  • Culture
105
Q

Facultative Myiasis

A
  • Done by some species in order diptera (true-flies)
  • Normally: eggs deposited in garbage, feces, rotten carrion
  • Occasionally: eggs deposited in contaminated wounds
  • Early lesions
    • Dermatitis
    • Presence of maggots
    • Pungent odor
    • Inflammation

(have been used medically to clean out necrotic tissue in wounds)

107
Q

Paratenic/Transport Host

A

Immature stage consumed. Parasite does not undergo further development. Remains encysted until host is eaten by definitive host.

108
Q

Superfamily Acanthocephalans

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Eversible proboscis
  • Indirect life cycle
    • IH: arthropod
  • Adults in small intestine of vertebrates
  • Fluid filled body cavity
109
Q

Superfamily Filarioidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Long, slender worms
  • Male has corkscrew tail
  • Indirect life cycle
    • IH: arthropod
  • Larviparous
110
Q

Hyatid Cyst

A
  • Class cestoda (tapeworms)
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • Larva/metacestode
  • Brood capsules w/ 100s-1000s protoscolices
  • Unilocular or Multilocular
  • Multilocular can “bubble-out” and spread like cancer
  • Zoonotic - humans can be IH
111
Q

Order Siphonaptera

A

Fleas

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Complex metamorphosis
  • Only adult is on host
    • Lays egg on host → egg falls off → larvae & pupae develop off the host
  • 95% infest mammals
  • Mate once
  • Larvae eat frass
    • Found in crevices, rugs
    • 2 molts, 3 instars
  • Vectors (plague)
113
Q

Tritrichomonas foetus

“Bovine Genetal Trichomonosis”

A
  • Phylum protista
  • Venereal disease of cattle
  • 3 anterior flagella
  • 1 posterior flagella
  • Undulating membrane
  • Axostyle (axial rod)
  • Pseudocyst
  • Binary fission (asexual)
  • Causes early embryonic death, abortion
115
Q

Characteristics of Kingdom Protista

(Protozoans)

A
  • Free living or parasitic
  • Eukaryotic
  • Unicellular
    • nucleus
    • mitochondria
    • ER
    • Golgi app.
    • Flagella
    • Cilia
    • Pseudopods
    • Undulating ridges, subpellicular microtubules
  • Asexual & sexual reproduction
  • Auto or heterotropic
117
Q

Sporocyst

A
  • Trematode (digenea)
  • Develops in snail (IH)
  • Produces rediae or cercariae
117
Q

Heartworm Case Differential Diagnoses

A
  • Intestinal parasites - ancylostoma (hookworm)
  • Collapsing trachea
  • Allergic bronchitis
  • Dog
    • kennel cough
  • Cat
    • feline asthma
118
Q

Trypanosoma cruzi

“Chagas Disease/American Trypanosomiasis”

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • DH: dogs (esp. sporting & working), cats, opossums, armadillos, racoons, rats, humans
  • Vector/IH: Reduviid bug
  • Target organs
    • Trypomastigote - circulating blood
    • Amastigote - smooth/cardiac muscle, neural cells
119
Q

Mosquito - Male vs. Female

A
  • Female
    • Feeds on blood
    • Pilose antennae
    • Long (anopholene) or short (culicine )palps
  • Male
    • Pollinator
    • Plumose antennae (looks like feather)
    • Clubbed (anopholene) or long (culicine) palps
120
Q

Cysticercoid

A
  • Class cestoda (tapeworms)
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • Larva/metacestode
  • Single scolex
  • Not invaginated
  • Invertebrate IH
122
Q

How do parasites escape immunity?

A
  • Molecular mimicry
  • Antigenic variation
  • Secretion of substances that disable local immune response
123
Q

Class 2 Heartworm Disease

A

Mild to moderate

  • Mild rad signs
    • RV enlargement
    • PA enlargement
    • Mix alveolar/interstitial pattern
  • Anemia (>20% pcv)
  • Mild proteinuria
  • +/- live, kidney changes
  • May be clinically free of clinical signs or show mild signs
124
Q

Hypobiosis

A

Arrested development/dormancy of nematode larvae (usually L4)

  • More resistant to anthelmentics
  • Extends prepatent period
125
Q

Class Insecta

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Segmented body
    • Head
    • Thorax
    • Abdomen
127
Q

Toxoplasma gondii

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order eucoccidiida
  • IH: most mammals
    • Encyst in tissues (liver, lungs, spleen, lymph nodes, brain, heart & skeletal muscle, eye)
  • DH: felines
  • Target organ: intestine
  • Transmission
    • Acquired: oocysts, raw/undercooked meat
    • Congenital: transplacental
128
Q

Class Cestoda

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Tapeworms
  • All parasitic
  • Hermaphroditic
  • Body of scolex & proglottids
  • No digestive, circulatory, respiratory, skeletal system
129
Q

Canine Ascarid Infection - Paratenic Host Transmission

A
  • Nematode
  • Dog ingests paratenic host w/ encysted L2 → L2 goes directly to stomach → matures in small intestine
  • No migration
130
Q

Fasciola Hepatica

“Liver Fluke”

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class trematoda
  • Subclass digenea
  • IH: aquatic snail
  • DH: cattle, sheep, goats
  • Target organ: bile ducts
  • Most pathogenic fluke
  • Acute/Subacute/Chronic Fascioliasis
130
Q

*Giardia *Dx

A
  • Fecal float
  • Direct smear of diarrhetic feces
  • ELISA
132
Q

*Sarcocystis *spp. Dx

A
  • Fecal float
  • Biopsy/necropsy
    • IH: schizont rosettes, sarcocysts
  • Western blot
    • Ab in serum or CSF (S. neurona)
  • PCR
  • History of presence of dogs/cats on premises
133
Q

Larviparous

A
  • Characteristic of nematodes
  • Eggs retained in uterus
  • “Gives birth” to live larvae or microfilariae
  • Ex. Dirofilaria immitis
134
Q

Parasitosis

A

Parasite present in host and causing clinical signs of disease.

135
Q
A
136
Q

Order Cyclophyllidea

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class cestoda
  • “True tapeworms”
  • Scolex (head)
    • Armed or unarmed
  • 1-2 sets of reproductive organs
  • Lateral genital pore
  • NO uterine pore
    • Shed gravid proglottid to release egg
  • Larvae - metacestode
    • cysticercoid
    • cysticercus
    • coenurus
    • Hyatid cyst
137
Q

Order Pseudophyllidea

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class cestoda
  • “Pseudotapeworms”
  • Scolex: bothria
  • 1 set reproductive organs
  • Genital pore
  • Uterine pore: shoot out eggs from proglottid
  • Operculated eggs: coracidum
  • Larvae: metacestode
    • Procercoid - in 1st IH (copepod)
    • Plerocercoid/Sparganum - in 2nd IH (vertebrate, frog)
138
Q

Amblyomma americanum

“Lone Star Tick”

A
  • Three host tick
    • Rodents, rabbits
    • Deer, cattle, horses, sheep
  • Tick paralysis
  • Disease vector
    • RMSF
    • Anaplasma
139
Q

Prepatent Period

A

time from infection until diagnostic stages

139
Q

Cryptosporidium spp. Life Cycle

A
140
Q

Superfamily Oxyuroidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • “Pinworms”
  • Double-bulbed esophagus
  • Direct life cycle, no migration
  • Eggs often left on perineal area
    • Scotch tape test
142
Q

*Cystoisospora *& Eimeria spp. Life Cycle

A

Sporulated oocyst ingested by DH → Sporozoites excyst → Trophozoite undergoes schizogony (asexual repro) in intestinal epithelium → Type I schizont infects another epithelial cell → Type II schizont → gametogony (merozoites → gametocytes) → microgametocyte (male) and macrogametocyte (female) join → zygote → detatch from epithelium → oocyst → release in feces → sporogony

143
Q

Cercariae/Cercaria

A
  • Trematode (digena)
  • Leaves snail (IH)
  • Has head & tail (resembles sperm)
  • Will do 1 of 3 things
    • Infect/penetrate 2nd IH
    • Encyst on vegetation
    • Infect/penetrate DH
144
Q

Platynosomum concinnum (fastosum)

“Lizard Poisoning Fluke”

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class trematoda
  • 1st IH: Terrestrial snail
  • 2nd IH: Anole lizards
  • Paratenic host: pill bugs
  • DH: cats
    • Normally no severe disease
    • Lizard poisoning: wt. loss, emaciation, D/V, jaundice, death
      • chronic: englarge bile ducts & gall bladder, liver failure
  • Target organs: liver, bile duct, pancreatic duct
146
Q

Superfamily Trichostrongyloidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Hair-like worms
  • Tiny mouths
  • Copulatory bursa (males)
  • Direct lifestyle
  • Non-larvated eggs
  • “HOTC” nematodes - eggs all look the same
  • DH: ruminants
  • Target organ: abomasum, small intestine
147
Q

Obligatory Myiasis

A
  • Done by species in order diptera (true flies)
  • Larvae must use host to complete life cycle
  • Adult deposits egg in
    • Living tissue
    • Uncontaminated wounds
    • Soft tissue
  • Will NOT find in feces, garbage
  • Ex. Cochliomyia hominivorax

(Definitely do NOT want to use medically. They eat the good stuff.)

148
Q

Canine Ascarid Infection - Direct Transmission

A
  • Nematode
  • Dogs
    • Ingest egg w/ L2 → larva hatches in duodenum → penetrates intestine → mesenteric lymph nodes → liver → heart → pulmonary arteries → lungs → molts to L3 → alveoli → bronchioles → trachea → coughed up → swallowed → stomach → molts to L4, L5 in small intestine → adult
    • Prepatent period 3-4 wks
  • Dog >3 mos.
    • Ingest egg w/ L2 → larva hatches in duodenum → penetrates intestine → enters circulation → L2 encysts (hypobiotic) in various tissues, no maturation
149
Q

Diagnostics for Possible Heartworm

A
  • Fecal float
  • Heartworm Ag test
    • Mff test
  • +/- chest rads
  • +/- CBC, Chemistry
150
Q

Type I Ostertagiasis

A
  • Caused by trichostrongyloid nematode Ostertagia ostertagi
  • Large number of larvae acquired from pasture
  • Moroccan leather appearance of abomaum mucosa
    • Substantial damage of gastric glands during migration (larvae all leave at once)
  • High egg counts
  • Rapid onset of clinical signs
  • Most susceptible in herd are affected
  • Good prognosis w/ tx
    • move to clean pasture
151
Q

Heartworm Screening

A
  • PE every 6-12 mos.
  • Annual hearthworm test (dogs)
    • test cats only if clinical signs are present, before placing on prevention
  • Fecal exam
    • Puppies > 1 yr: every 3-6 mos.
    • Adults: annually
  • In endemic regions: annual testing for vector-transmitted pathogens
152
Q

Endoparasite

A

Parasite within host. Infection.

154
Q

Oxyuris equi

“Large Equine Pinworm”

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Superfamily oxyuridae
  • DH: horse
  • Target organ: large intestine
  • Eggs: asymmetrical, operculated, unembryonated when laid
  • Female deposits egg in perianal region within sticky matrix, where the egg embryonates
  • Eggs fall into bedding food and the horse ingests them
  • Pruritis ani/”Seat itch”
    • risk of secondary bacterial infection
  • Fecal float not dependable
  • Scotch-tape test
155
Q

Type II Ostertagiasis

A
  • Caused by trichostrongyloid nematode Ostertagia ostertagi
  • Uncommon
  • Ingestion of L3 → hypobiosis in gastric glands
  • No clinical disease initially
  • Conditions improve → mass eruption of larvae (can be >100,000)
  • Usually yearlings, heifers, older animals
  • Diagnostic clinical signs: rapid onset of severe PGE in only a few animals
  • Variable egg counts
  • High serum pepsinogen (manily looked at in research)
  • Mucosal reddening, edema
157
Q

Sylvatic Cycles

A

Involves parasites of wild animals infecting humans

158
Q

Chrysops spp.

A

Deer fly

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Order diptera
  • Family tabinidae
  • Females feed on blood
  • Males feed on honeydew, nectar
  • IH/vector
  • Aquatic larvae
  • Herbivorous larvae
  • Insecticides NOT useful
159
Q

Superfamily Ascaroidea

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Very large
  • 3 anterior lips
  • Direct life cycle
  • Non-larvated eggs in feces
    • thick-shelled, morula
161
Q

Ag test: variable

Microfilariae test: Negative or Positive

(Dirofilaria immitis aka heartworm Dx)

A

Fluctuating Ag level due to # of female worms, age of worms, quality of sample

163
Q

Cytauxzoon felis Dx

A
  • Blood smear
  • PCR
  • Biopsy/necropsy of visceral organs
    • histiocytes - nucleus displace, cytoplasm filled w/ granules
165
Q

Anoplocephala perfoliata

“Lappeted Tapeworm”

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class cestoda
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • IH: mite
  • DH: horse
  • Target organs: intestines, congregates near ileocecal valve
  • Adults: short & wide w/ lappets (“bowties”) behind each sucker
  • Metacestode/larvae: cysticercoid
  • Egg: hexacanth embryo, pyriform apparatus
  • Predisposes to intussusception, impaction colic
  • Chronic symptoms: ill thrift, recurrent diarrhea, wt. loss
  • Indirect & serologic ELISA available
167
Q

Dirofilaria immitis

“Heartworm”

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • DH: dogs, cats, ferrets, sea lions, seals
  • Target organ: R ventricle, pulmonary arteries
  • IH/Vector: mosquito
  • Male is smaller w/ spiraled posterior end
  • Larviparous
  • Nocturnal and imcomplete periodicity
168
Q

Otodectes cynotis

“Ear Mite”

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class arachnida
  • Order acarina
  • DH: dogs, cats, foxes, raccoons, ferrets (NOT zoonotic)
  • Target organ: external ear canal
    • thick, tarry exudate
  • Transmission: direct contact
  • Short, nonjointed pedicels
    • Females: suckers on leg pairs 1, 2, 4
    • Males: suckers on all leg pairs
  • Permanent parasite
  • Dx: ear swab & smear
169
Q

Haemonchus contortus

“Barberpole Worm”

A
  • Phylum nematoda
  • Superfamily trichostrongyloidea (HOTC)
  • DH: ruminants, esp. goats, sheep
    • Sheep/goats acquire little/no immunity
    • Prolactin suppresses immunity to worms even more
      • Periparturient rise
  • Target organ: abomasum
  • Lancet tooth at anterior end (for blood sucking)
  • Major cause of PGE
    • Anemia
  • Very fecund (high fertility)
  • Resistant to most anthelmentics
170
Q

*Tabanus *spp.

A

Horse Fly

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Order diptera
  • Family tabanidae
  • Females feed on blood
  • Males feed on honeydew, nectar
  • IH/vector
  • Aquatic larvae
  • Carnivorous larvae
  • Insecticides NOT usefull
171
Q

Family Culicidae

A

Mosquitoes

  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class insecta
  • Order diptera
  • Subfamilies
    • Anopholene
      • Anopholes spp.
    • Culicine
      • Aedes spp.
      • Culex spp.
  • Larvae are always aquatic
  • Pupae do not feed
172
Q

Coenurus

A
  • Class cestoda (tapeworms)
  • Order cyclophyllidea
  • Larva/metacestode
  • Many invaginated scolices (scolex)
  • Vertebrate IH
173
Q

Simple (Incomplete) Metamophosis

A

Phylum arthropoda

Class arachnida

174
Q

Sarcocystis cruizi Clinical Signs

A

Dalmeny disease in Cattle

  • intermittent fever
  • Loss of condition
  • diarrhea
  • vaginitis
  • abortion (last trimester)
  • mild nervousness
  • dec. milk yield
  • anemia
  • death
175
Q

Miracidium

A
  • Trematodes (digenea)
  • Ciliated, penetrates snail
176
Q

Demodex canis

“Follicle Mite”

A
  • Phylum arthropoda
  • Class arachnida
  • Order acarina
  • DH: dogs (NOT zoonotic)
  • Target organ: hair follicles & adjacent sebaceous glands
  • Permanent parasite
  • Localized or general demodectid acariasis
    • Alopecia
    • Pyoderma
    • 2° bacterial infections
  • Transmission: direct contact
  • Dx:
    • Deep skin scrape
    • Look at pustule/abcess contents
    • May see in fecal float (dog bits at itch, injests mite)
177
Q

Pseudoparasite

A

An object mistaken for a parasite in diagnostics (ex. pollen in fecal float)

178
Q

Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis (EPM)

A
  • Horse is aberrant/dead-end host of Sarcocystis neurona
    • ​Normal DH: opossum
    • Normal IH: otter, raccoon, seal, skunk, armadilla
    • CNS disease
      • Schizonts destroy neuronal cells while developing
      • Merozoite release lyses cells
      • No sarcocysts develop
      • Lesions in spinal cord, brain, meninges
    • Clinical signs: head tilt, drooping eye/eyelid, facial paralysis, masseter atrophy, circling, stumbling, falling
179
Q

*Cryptosporidium *spp.

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order eucoccidiida
  • Immunity to 1 species does NOT give immunity to others
  • DH: fish, birds, reptiles, mammals (including humans)
  • Target organ: intestine (esp. microvillus border)
  • Small oocysts
  • Risk of waterborne outbreaks
  • LOTS of diarrhea!!
    • yellow, profuse watery
    • usually self-limiting
180
Q

Intermediate Host

A

Harbors larval/asexual/immature stages of parasite

181
Q

Subclass Digenea

A
  • Phylum platyhelminthes
  • Class trematoda
  • Leaf-like body shape
    • Schistosomes
  • Indirect lifestyle
  • IH usually a snail
  • Tandem or parallel male sex organs
  • Usually suck blood from host
182
Q

Metacercariae/Metacercaria

A
  • Trematode (digenea)
  • Encysts in environment or host
  • Infective stage (DH)
183
Q

Heteroxenous

A

>1 host (intermediate & definitive hosts.

184
Q

*Eimeria *spp.

A
  • Kingdom protista
  • Phylum apicomplexa
  • Order Eucoccidiida
  • Stenoxenous
  • Monoxenous (direct life cycle)
  • DH: birds, cattle, small ruminants, horses, rabbits, rodents, pigs
  • Sexual & asexual reproduction
  • Oocyst - 4 sporocysts w/ 2 sporozoites each
185
Q

Direct Life Cycle

A

No intermediate hosts

Veterinary Parasitology (2 decks)

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