Vocab Flashcards
Politics
The process of making collective decisions, usually by governments, to allocate and enforce rules for the operation of society
Political System
The way a society organizes and manages its politics across various levels of public authority
Preferences
The outcomes or experiences people want or believe they need
Institutions
Rules or sets of rules or practices that determine how people make collective decisions
Federal System
A political system with multiple levels of government, in which each level has independent authority over some important policy areas
Collective dilemma
A situation in which there is conflict between group goals and individual goals or self-interest
Public good
A benefit provided to a group of people such that each member can enjoy it without necessarily having to pay for it, and one person’s enjoyment of it does not inhibit others from enjoying the benefit
Private good
A product or benefit provided such that it’s enjoyment can be limited to specific people, and one individual’s consumption of it precludes others from consuming it
Free riding
Benefiting from a public good while avoiding the costs of contributing to it
Collective action problem
A situation in which people would be better off if they all cooperated; however, any individual has an incentive not to cooperate as long as others are cooperating
Prisoner’s dilemma
An interaction between two strategic actors in which neither actor has an incentive to cooperate even though each of them would be better off if they both cooperated
Transaction costs
The challenges people face when they try to exchange information or use other means to cooperate with each other
Coordination problem
A situation in which two or more people are all better off if they coordinate on a common course of action, but there is more than one possible course of action to take
Minimum winning coalition
The smallest-sized coalition necessary to achieve a goal
Unstable coalition
An instance in which three or more people must make a collective choice from a set of alternatives, but any voting coalition in favor of an alternative can be divided by consideration of another alternative
Agenda setter
An authority that controls what options are decided on by a group
Principal-agent problem (delegation problem)
An instance in which one actor (a principal) confers another actor (an agent) to act on the principal’s behalf; but the actors may not share the same preferences, and the principal lacks the means to observe all of the agent’s behavior
Bureaucrat
Any government employee who is not part of the ruling powers
Bureaucracy
An agency or office devoted to carrying out tasks for the government in a manner consistent with the law
Public policies
Programs and decisions by the government that are enforced by the rule of law
Path dependence
The notion that earlier events or decision deeply affect current and future policy decisions or outcomes
Authoritarianism
A political system in which there is no expectation they the government represents the people, and the institutions of government do not give the people a direct voice who will lead
Dictatorship
An authoritarian political system which sovereign power is vested in one individual
Monarchy
A political system in which a ruler (usually a king or queen) is chosen by virtue of being the heir of the previous ruler
Oligarchy
A political system in which power resides in a small segment of society
One-party state
A political system in which one party controls the government and actively seeks to prevent other parties from contesting for power
Democracy
Rule by the people; in practice today, this means popular election of the government and basic protections of civil rights and liberties
Republic
A political system in which public officials are chosen to represent the people in an assembly that makes important policy decisions
Minimum winning coalition
The smallest-sized coalition necessary to achieve a goal
Unstable Coalition
An instance in which three or more people must make a collective choice from a set of alternatives, but any voting coalition in favor of an alternative can be divided by consideration of another alternative
Agenda Setter
An authority that controls what options are decided on by a group
Principal-agent problem (delegation problem)
An instance in which one actor (a principal) contracts another actor (agent) to act on the principal’s behalf; but the actors may not share the same preferences, and the principal lacks the means to observe all of the agent’s behavior
Bureaucrat
Any government employee who is not part of the ruling powers
Public policies
Programs and decisions by the government that are enforced by the rule of law
Path dependence
The notion that earlier events or decisions deeply affect current and future policy decisions or outcomes
Authoritarianism
A political system in which there is no expectation that the government represents the people, and the institutions of government do not give the people a direct voice in who will lead
Dictatorship
An authoritarian political system in which sovereign power is vested in one individual
Monarchy
A political system in which a ruler (usually a ruler or queen) is chosen by virtue of being the heir of the previous ruler
Oligarchy
A political system in which power resides in a small segment of society
One-party state
A political system in which one party controls the government and actively seeks to prevent other parties from contesting for power
Democracy
Rule by the people; in practice today, this means popular election of the government and basic protections of civil rights and liberties
Republic
A political system in which public officials are chosen to represent the people in an assembly that makes important policy decisions
Rule of law
A system in which all people in a society, including governing officials, are subject to legal codes that are applied without bias by independent courts
Articles of Confederation
The constitution drafted by the second continental congress in 1777 and ratified by the states in 1781. It set up a weak central government consisting of a congress with limited legislative power and virtually no authority over the execution of its laws
Virginia Plan
A plan proposed at the constitutional convention by Edmund Randolph of Virgina Outlining a stronger national government with an independent executive and a bicameral legislature whose membership in both houses would be apportioned according to state population
New Jersey Plan
A plan proposed at the Constitutional convention by William Paterson of New Jersey to amend, rather than replace, the standing Articles of Confederation. The plan called for a unicameral legislature with equal representation among the states, along with a plural (multi-person) executive appointed by the legislature
Connecticut compromise
An agreement reached at the constitutional convention to establish a bicameral legislature with an upper house (the senate) composed of equal representation from each state and a lower house (the House of Representatives) composed or representation from each state in proportion to its population
Electoral College
The electors appointed by each state to vote for the president
Bicameral legislature
A legislature consisting of two chambers or houses
Expressed powers (enumerated powers)
Those powers specifically described in the constitution
Elastic clause (necessary and proper clause)
The provision in Article 1, Section 8, of the constitution stating that congress can make whatever laws are “necessary and proper” to provide the means to carry out its enumerated powers
Separation of powers
An arrangement in which specific governmental powers are divided among distinct branches of government; typically, this means having an executive who is chosen independently of the legislature, and thus executive power and legislative power are separated
Checks and balances
An arrangement in which no one branch of government can conduct its core business without the approval, tacit or expressed, of the other branches
Supremacy clause
The section of Article VI of the Constitution stating that the Constitution and the subsequent laws of the United States are to be the “Supreme law of the land,” meaning that they supersede any state and local laws
Reserved powers
Those powers not granted to the national government by the Constitution, and therefore reserved to the states
Federalists
Those who favored adopting the Constitution as written because they believed that a strong national government was needed to solve the collective dilemmas facing the states.
Antifederalists
Those who opposed adopting the Constitution as written because they feared that it created an overly strong national government
Bill of Rights
The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, which enumerate a set of liberties not to be violated by the government and a set of rights to be protected by the government
Commerce clause
An enumerated power listed in Article 1, Section 8, of the Constitution that grants Congress the power to “regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian Tribes.”
Federalism
A policial system with multiple levels of government in which each level has independent authority over some important policy areas
Confederation
A political system with multiple levels or government in which lower-level governments retain full sovereignty and cannot be compelled by the national government to act
Dual federalism
A political system in which each level of government - national and state - is sovereign in its own sphere of policy authority
Cooperative federalism
A political system in which both levels of government - national and state - are active in nearly all areas of policy and share sovereign authority
Intergovernmentalism
A system in which multiple levels or government are active in a given policy area
Grants-in-aid
Money that is distributed to lower-level governments with the purpose of funding special projects
Categorical grants
Grants that narrowly define how the funds are to be spent. These grants normally come with conditions that need to be satifised in order for the money to be used
Revenue sharing
A principle whereby the national government and the lower-level governments cooperate in funding a project
Block grants
Sums of money transfered to lower-level governments such that, as long as the general purpose of the grant is met, the lower-level governments are allowed considerable freedom in deciding how the money is spent
Ballot initiative
An election in which citizens vote directly on a proposition raised by a group of fellow citizens
Referendum
An election in which citizens vote directly on whether to overturn a bill or a constitutional amendment that has been passed by the legislature
Recall election
An election during the term of an elected government official in which citizens vote directly on whether to remove the individual from office
Home rule
The constitutional or legal authority held by local governments that allow them to govern themselves with little or no interference from the state
Unitary system
A political system in which the national government holds ultimate authority over all areas of policy and over the actions or subunit governments
Reserved powers
The powers not granted to the national government by the constitution, and therefore reserved to the states
Bicameral legislature
A legislature consisting of two chambers or houses
Single-member district
An electoral district in which a single person is elected to a given office
Plurality rule
A methods for determining an election’s winner in which the the candidates who receives the most votes wins
Proportional representation
A method for allocating seats in a legislature in which the number of seats a party receives in a district or nationwide is proportional to the votes it receives in the elections
Gerrymandering
Drawing strangely shaped district boundaries to gain political advantage
Trustees
Representatives who make decisions using their own judgements about what is best for their constituents
Delegates
Representatives who listen carefully to what their constituents want and make decisions based on feedback from constituents
Constituency service
A legislator directly helping a constituent in dealing with government bureaucracy
Incumbency advantage
The adctnahe current office holders have in an election, in particular as it relates to the high rates at which congressional legislators win reelection
Party discipline
Pressure on party members to vote on bills that have the support of the party leadership
Speaker of the House
The constitutionally designated leader of the House of Representatives. In the modern House, he or she is always the leader of the majority party
Reed’s Rules
Procedural guidelines uses by the majority party leadership for determining who sits on which committees, how the order of business should be decided, and how the majority party should limit the powers of the minority party
Majority leader
The head of the party holding a majority of seats and, in the Senate, the leader of the Senate. In the House, the majority leader is second to the Speaker of the House
Whip
A member of the House or senate who is elected by his or her party to help party leaders coordinate party members’ actions, including enforcing party discipline
Standing committee
A group of legislators given permanent jurisdiction over a particular issue area or type of policy
Special (or select) committee
A committee appointed to consider a special issue or serve a special function that disbands once it has completed its duties
Joint committee
A committee made up of members of both the House and Senate
Conference Committee
A meeting of legislators from the House and Senate to reconcile two bills passed on the same topic
Caucus
In a legislature, a group of legislators that unites to promote an agenda not pursued within the parties or the legislative committees
Split Referral
A rule (in place since 1975) that permits the Speaker to split a bill into sections and give sections to specific committees
Markup
A committee or subcommittee process where committee members edit and amend bills
Open rule
A provision that allows any amendment to be proposed once a bill comes to the chamber floor
Closed rule
A provision that allows no amendments to be proposed once a bill comes to the chamber floor
Restricted (or modified) rule
A provision that allows only certain kinds of amendments to be proposed once a bill comes to the floor, typically only amndemnets that pertain to the original purpose of the bill
Filibuster
Instances in which senators, once recognized to speak on the floor, talk for an extended period (“hold the floor”) in an attempt to block the rest of the Senate from voting on a bill
Cloture
A rule that limits the debate on a bill to specific number of hours. Senate rules require 60 senators to support such a motion to end the debate (including filibusters) and proceed to a vote
Unanimous Consent Agreement
Rules under which the Senate debates, offers amendments, and votes on a given bill. All members of the chamber must agree to them, so any senator can object and halt progress on a bill
Pocket veto
A veto that occurs automatically if a president does not sign a bill for 10 days afrer passage in Congress and Congress has adjourned during that 10-day period
Pork Barrel
Government spending that benefits a narrow constituency in return for electoral support or some other kind of political support or some other kinds of political support, including campaign donations
Distributional Model
The view that the internal institutions of the congressional chambers are designed primarily to help members of congress secure economic benefits for only their constituents, not the general public
Logrolling
An instance of two or more lefialtoes agreeing to vote in favor of one another’s proposed bills or amendments
Informational model
The view that the internal institutions of the congressional chambers are designed to help confess make more informed decisions
Partisan Model
The view that majority party leaders dominate the workings of congress and ensure that most legislative benefits come to majority party members
Spoils system
The practice of rewarding loyal partisans with government positions after they demonstrate their support during an election
Divided Government
A government whose president is from a different party than the majority in congress
Unified Government
A government whose president is from the same party as the majority in Congress
Going public
Action taken by a president to communicate directly with the people us usually through a press conference, radio broadcast, or televised speech to influence public opinion and put pressure on congress
Administrative Law
The body of law created by executive agencies with the purpose of refining general law passed in legislation
Pocket veto
A veto that occurs automatically if a president does not sign a bill for 10 days after passage in Congress and Congress has adjourned during that 10-day period
Veto threat
A public statement issued by the president declaring that if Congress passes a particular bill that he or she dislikes, it will ultimately be vetoed.
Executive order
An offfical means by which the president can instruct federal agencies on how to execute the laws passed by Congress
Executive Agreement
An agreement between the United States and one or more foreign countries. Because it is not a formal treaty, it does not need Senate approval
Signing statement
A public statement written by the president and attached to a particular bill to outline his or her interpretation of the legislation
Parliamentary democracy
A form of democracy in which the executive is elected by the legislature and the government is responsible to the legislature
Presidential system
A form of democracy in which the executive is elected independently and the government is not responsible to the legislature
Mixed presidential system
A form of democracy in which the executive is elected independently and shares responsibility for the government with the legislature
Line-item veto
A partial veto that allows the executive to strike specific passages from a given bill
Special prosecutor
Independent, pricate sector counsel hired by Congress to investigate government officials
Impeachment
Process by which the House or Representatives formally charges a federal government official with “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.”
Government bureaucracy
Agencies and offices devoted to carrying out the tasks of government consistent with the law
Government agency
An individual unit of the government responsible for carrying out the tasks delegated to it by Congress or the president in accordance with the law
Cabinet departments
Departments within the executive branch that encompass many of the agencies that implement federal policy. Secretaries appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate are given the responsibility of leading these departments and advising the president
Independent agency
An agency that exists outside the cabinet departments and is run with a larger degree of independence from presidential influence
Government organization
A federally owned corporation that generates revenue by providing a public service, opearting much like a private business and with a higher degree of autonomy than a cabinet department or an independent agency
Bureaucratic drift
When government agencies depart from executing policy consistent with the ideological preferences of Congress or the president so as to execute policy consistent with their own ideological preferences
Coalitional drift
When an ideological shift in elected branches creates disparity between the way an agency executed policy and the way new members of Congress or a new president believes the agency ought to execute policy
Bureaucratic capture
When regulatory agencies are beholden to the organizations or interests they are supposed to regulate
Administrative Law
The body of law created by executive agencies with the purpose of refining general law passed in legislation
Rule making
The process by which governmental agencies provide details on how laws passed by elected officials will be implemented
Privatization
The contracting of private companies by the government to conduct work that was formerly done by government agencies
Marketization
Government bureaucratic reform that emphasizes market-based principles of management that are common to the private sector
Government contract
An agreement whereby the government hires a company or an organization to carry out certain tasks on its behalf
Government grant
Money that the government provides to individuals or organizations to perform tasks in the public’s interest
Fire-alarm oversight
Congressional oversight that relies on interest groups and citizens to inform representatives of unwarranted action
Police-patrol oversight
Congressional oversight that consists of actively monitoring agencies through routine inspection
Judicial Review
The authority of the judiciary to decide whether a la or any other government action is constitutional
Federal court supremacy
The arrangement based on the supremacy clause in the In the constitution that gives federal courts the authority to overturn state court decisions and to decide on the constitutionality of state laws and actions
Criminal case
A case in which the government prosecute a person fro a crime against society
Civil case
A case in which at least one person sues another person for violating the civil code of conduct
Standing
The official status of a litigant who is entitled to have his or her case decided by the court
Class action
A lawsuit in which the plaintiff or defendant is a collective group of individuals
Common law
A system of jurisprudence in which the judiciary has the authority to determine how the law is to be interpreted. Under this system, legal precedent established by judges informs future decisions
Civil law
A system of jurisprudence in which authoritative document determine how the law is to be interpreted. Under this system, legal codes and statues (and not judges) inform future decisions
Stare decisis
The legal principle that requires judges to represent the decisions of past court cases
Statutory law
The laws passed by legislatures, or administrative agencies, empowered by legislatures and the court decisions interpreting those laws
Constitutional law
The collection of fundamental rules for making statutory laws and regulations, their enforcement and the court decisions interpreting those rules
Writ of Certiorari
An order by the Supreme Court directing and inferior court to deliver the records of a case to be reviewed, which effectively means the justices of the court have decided to hear the case
Moot
The status of a case in which further legal proceedings would have no impact on one or both parties
Amicus curiae
Briefs (letters to the court) in which those who are not parties in a case provide their opinions on how the case should be decided
Legal model
A theoretical model where judicial decisions are primarily determine by the case, the plain meaning of the text from the constitution and statues, the intent of the framers, and/or legal precedent
Attitudinal model
A theoretical model where judicial decisions are primarily determined by the policy goals and ideological agendas of judges
Strategic (or rationa choice) model
A theoretical model where judicial decisions are primarily determined by the policy goals and various constraints that stand in the way of achieving those goals
Concurring opinion
An opinion issued by a member of the majority of the Supreme Court that agrees with the majority but offers alternative legal reasoning
Dissenting opiniom
An opinion issued by a member of the Supreme Court in opposition to the majority offering legal reasoning for the decision to oppose
Strict constructionism (or constructivism)
The legal philosophy that judges should use the intentions of those writing the law or the constitution as guides for how to interpret the law
Civil rights
Rights that (1) enable individuals to engage in activities central to citizenship or legal immigrant status, such as voting or petitioning the government; (2) ensure all individuals receive due process and equal treatment under the law; or (3) guarantee freedom from discriminatory actions by others that seek to deny an individual’s full status as an equal member of society
Civil liberties
Freedoms protected from interference by the government, such as freedom of speech, the right to bear arms, and freedom of religion
Bill of Rights
The first 10 amendments to the Constitution, which enumerate a set of liberties not to be violated by the government and a set of rights to be protected by the government
Jim Crow laws
Laws passed after the Civil War to establish a system of segregation of public facilites and private establishments that made African Americans second-class citizens
Civil Rights Movement
A social movement of the 1950s and 1960s focused primarily on the situation of African Americans, but also promoting the goals that all people be treated as equals under the law and that discrimination based on race, religion, ethnicity, gender, and place of origin be eliminated
Due Process
The right to legal protections against arbitrary deprivation of life, liberty, or property
Equal Protection
The principle that laws passed and enforced by the states must apply fairly to all individuals
Incorporation
The process by which rights and liberties established by the Bill of Rights are applied to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment
Strict Scrutiny
The highest-level standard used by the Supreme Court to determine whether a law is compatible with the Constitution. A law subject to this standard is considered unconstitutional unless it advances a “compelling state interest” and represents the least intrusive means
Rational Basis Test
The lowest-level standard used by the Supreme Court to determine whether a law is compatible with the Constitution. A law subject to this standard is assumed to be constitutional as long as its goals are clearly linked to its means
Intermediate Scrutiny
An intermediate standard used by the Supreme Court to determine whether a law is compatible with the Constitution. A law subject to this standard is considered constitutional if it advances “an important government objective” and is “substantially related” to the objective
Affirmative Action
Efforts to redress previous discrimination against women and minorities through active measures to promote their employment and educational opportunities
Political Participation
Activities citizens undertake to influence government behavior
Popular Sovereignty
The principle that the authority to make decisions on behalf of society belongs to the people
Paradox of voting
The notion that people still vote even though the individual costs of voting likely outweigh the individual benefits
Voter Registration
A process by which citizens enroll with the government to gain permission to vote in an election
Political Knowledge
A general understanding of how the political system works, and who runs the government
Help América Vote Act of 2002
A federal law meant to reduce barriers to participation in elections
Vote by mail
A program in many states that allows voters to mail in their ballots rather than appearing in person at a polling place
The franchise (or suffrage)
The right to vote
Voting Rights Act of 1965
A federal law that made it a priority of the national government to enforce provisions of the Fourteenth and fifteenth amendments, lending to major improvements in voting rights for blacks, other minorities, and the poor
Voter turnout
The proportion of potential voters who vote in a given election
Voter mobilization
Efforts by organizations to facilitate or encourage voting
Socioeconomic status (SES)
A measure of the way that individuals are regarded within a society by virtue of their wealth, income, education, and profession
Social capital
The existence of organizations, clubs, and social venues that allow for citizens to interact together regularly to create bonds of social trust
Public Opinion
The collection of attitudes and preferences of the mass public
Population
In statistical research, the entire group that you want to learn about, such as all adults living in the United States
Sample
In statistical research, a subset of the population chosen to provide information for research about the population
Random selection
Choosing a sample such that each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected into the sample
Margin of error
In statistical research, the range of outcomes we expect for a population, given the data revealed by a sample drawn from that population
Biased Sample
A sample that, because it does not accurately represent the overall population, is likely to lead to erroneous conclusions about the population
Push Polling
Surveys or polls in which respondents are given information before answering an opinion question about a candidate, party, political issue, where the information is given with the intention or influencing the opinion expressed
Rationality
The habit of choosing the best choice among available options, given a person’s interests and information
Priming
The psychological process of shaping people’s perceptions of a particular issue, figure, or policy
Framing
Establishing the context for an issue in such a way as to emphasize certain aspects over others
Ideology
A coherent, organized set of ideas and principles that func ions as a core on which indovusal draw when forming their attitudes about public affairs
Party identification (or partisanship)
Loyalty or psychological attachment to a political party
Non-attitude
A lack of opinion on an issue, or an opinion so weakly held that it does not enter into a person’s calculations about voting or taking some other political action, even though the person may express an opinion to a pollster
Political Party
A group of candidates and elected officials organized under a common label for the purpose of attaining positions of public authority
National Committee
Officials who oversee the operation of their party nationwide
National Party Convention
The meeting where the party formally nominates its presidential candidate
Party professional
A person who works directly for the party, is loyal to its goal of winning elections and stays with it over long periods through multiple election cycles
Party amateur
An issue activist who is mostly interested in specific policy areas and works for the party, or for specific politicians within the party, to advance these goals
Smoke-filled room
A situation in which party elites make important decisions away from the scrtuinty or influence of party membership
Primary election
An election held before Election Day to allow voters to select which candidates will appear on the ballot under a party label
Party Identification
Loyalty or psychological attachment to a political party
Political Machine
A local organization that controls the city or county government to such an extent that it can reward whole neighborhoods, wards, precincts, or other groups with benefits such as jobs and government programs in return for supporting the party’s candidates
New Deal Party System
A political alliance between Southern Democrats, big-city Democrats, rural voters, and African Amefians that endured for several decades after the election of Franklin Roosevelt in 1932
Duverger’s Law
A regularity that only two parties tend to compete for control of the government in countries that have single-member, pluratily electoral systems
Party Discipline
The tendency for members of a legislative party to vote as a bloc
Confidence vote
A vote held in a parliamentary system that, if it fails, brings on an election and possibly a new set of party leaders
Interest Group
Any group other than a political party that is organized to influence the government
Lobbying
An attempt to influence public officials by speaking to them directly or by pressuring them through their constituents
Inside lobbying
Activities by lobbyists and interest group leaders that involve direct contact with policy makers
Outside lobbying
Activities by interest group leaders that seek to mobilize constituents and others outside the policy making community to contact or pressure policy makers
Latent interest
A concern shared by a group of people on which they have not yet chosen to act collectively
By-product
A political activity conducted by groups whose principal organizational purpose is the pursuit of some non-political goal
Selective incentive
A benefit that a group can offer to potential members in exchange for participation as a way to encourage that involvement
Special donor
A potential participant in a group for whom the cost of pariticpating is very low and/or the benefits of participating are very high
Entrepreneur
A leading group participant who is so committed to the group’s goals and/or so skilled in the pursuit of those goals that he or she does not need selective incentives
Social movement
A loose coalition of groups and organizations with common goals that are oriented toward using mass action to influence the government
Pluralism
A view of the American political system that emphasizes that a large number of diverse interest groups are involved in the political process, and that any given group may be influential on some occasions and not on others
Median Voter Theorem
A mathematical result showing that the voter with the ideological preference in the middle of the ranking of voters just be satisfied and approve of a majority-rule winning outcome
Plurality rule
A method for determining an election’s winner in which the candidate who receives the most votes wins
Single-member district
An electoral district in which a single person is elected to a given office
Australian ballot
A type of ballot that lists all candidates running for each office and allows voters to cast their votes secretly and for specific individual candidates
Referendum
An election in which citizens vote directly on whether to overturn a bill or a constitutional amendment that has been passed by the legislature
Initiative
An election held to vote directly on a ballot question that was proposed by a group of individuals
Open primary
A primary election in which any registered voter can vote regardless of party affiliation
Closed primary
A primary election in which only voters registered with the party can vote
Political action committee (PAC)
A type of organization regulated by the Federal Election Commission that raises money from donors to support the election campaigns of federal political candidates
Federal Election Commission (FEC)
The federal agency that regulates campaign donations to and spending by candidates for congress and the presidency
Super PACs
A type of organization regulated by the Federal Election Commission that can spend unlimited sums of money to adovcate for the election or for the defeat of a candidate but is prohibited from contributing funds directly to federal campaigns and parties
Hard money
Campaign funds that are given directly to candidates or parties to support a particular candidate and thus are subject to FEC regulations
Soft money
Campaign funds that are given to parties or other organizations to support voter mobilization or voter education activities and thus typically not subject to FEC regulations
527s
Organizations that are independent of any party or candidate and thus not regulated by the Federal Election Commission; they do not advocate publicly for or against specific candidates, parties, or policies
Media
The methods or technologies people use for communication, such as phones, radios, newspapers, television, and the internet
Press
The people and organizations that provide content about public affairs news and commentary that is disseminated across media
Mass mediq
Media that is intended to be publicly available, or at least targeted at large numbers of people
Infotainment
Mass media programming that is intended primarily to entertain but also provides political news
Gatekeepijg bias
The tendency for the media, or a specific media outlet, not to report stories of a particular nature
Coverage bias
The tendency for the media, or a specific media outlet, to give less attention in terms of column space or airtime to certain kinds of stories or aspects of stories
Statement bias
The tendency for the media or a specific media outlet, to interject opinions into the coverage of an issue
