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Vocab Flashcards

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1
Q

acetylcholine

A

a critical neurotransmitter that controls functions such as memory, attention, sleep, heart rate, and muscular activity

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2
Q

action potential

A

an electrical charge that travels along the axon to the neuron’s terminal, where it triggers the release of a neurotransmitter. This occurs when a neuron is activated and temporarily reverses the electrical state of its interior membrane from negative to positive

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3
Q

adenosine

A

a neurochemical that inhibits wakefulness, serving the purpose of slowing down cellular activity and diminishing arousal. Adenosine levels decrease during sleep

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4
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

An endocrine organ that secretes steroid hormones for metabolic functions; for example, in response to stress

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5
Q

adrenal medulla

A

an endocrine organ that secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine in concert with the activation of the sympathetic nervous system; for example, in response to stress

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6
Q

Agonist

A

1.) A neurotransmitter, drug, or other molecule that stimulates receptors to produce a desired reaction 2.) A muscle that moves a joint in an intended direction

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7
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

A major cause of demntia in the elderly, this neurodegenerative disorder is characterized by the death of neurons in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and other brain regons. The earliest symptoms of the disease include forgetfulness; disorientation as to time or place; and difficulty with concentration, calculation, languae, and judgement. In the final stages, individuals are incapable of self-care and may be bedridden

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8
Q

Amino Acid Transmitters

A

The most prevalent neurotransmitters in the brain, these include glutamate and aspartate, which have excitatory actions on nerve cells, and glycine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which have inhibitory actions on nerve cells

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9
Q

Amygdala

A

A structure in the forebrain that is important component of the limbic system and plays a central role in emotional learning, particularly within the context of fear

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10
Q

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

A

Commonly known as Lou Gehrig’s disease, ALS causes motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord to disintegrate, resulting in loss of control of voluntary muscle movements such as walking

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11
Q

Androgens

A

sex steroid hormones, including testosterone, found in higher levels in males than females. They are responsible for male sexual maturation.

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12
Q

Aphasia

A

Disturbance in language comprehension or production, often as a result of a stroke.

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13
Q

Antagonist

A

1.) A drug or other molecule that blocks receptors. Antagonists inhibit the effects of agonists. 2.) A muscle that moves a joint in opposition to an intended direction

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14
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death induced by specialized biochemical pathways, often serving a specific purpose in the development of an animal

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15
Q

Auditory Nerve

A

A bundle of nerve fibers extending from the cochlea of the ear to the brain that contains two branches: the cochlear nerve, which transmits sound information, and the vestibular nerve, which relays information related to balance

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16
Q

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A

A condition characterized by excessively inattentive, hyperactive, or impulsive behaviors

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17
Q

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

A

A condition characterized by impaired social skills; verbal and nonverbal communication difficulties; and narrow, obsessive interests or repetitive behaviors

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18
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

A part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating the activity of internal organs. It includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

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19
Q

Axon

A

The fiberlike extension of a neuron by which it sends information to target cells

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20
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Structures located deep in the brain that play an important role in the initiation of movements. These clusters of neurons include the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, and substantia nigra. Cell death in the substantia nigra contributes to Parkinson’s disease

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21
Q

Bipolar Disorder

A

Previously known as manic-depressive illness, this disorder is characterized by episodes of deep depression and manic highs. The depressive episodes are similar to those experienced by people with depression. Symptoms of mania include increased energy, decreased need for sleep, a marked interest in goal-directed activities, and poor judgement

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22
Q

Brainstem

A

The major route by which the forebrain sends information to and receives information from the spinal cord and peripheral nerves. The brainstem controls, among other things, respiration and the regulation of heart rhythms.

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23
Q

Broca’s Area

A

The brain region located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere that is important for the production of speech

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24
Q

Catecholamines

A

The neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine, which are active in both the brain and the peripheral sympathetic nervous system. These three molecules have certain structural similarities and are part of a larger class of neurotransmitters known as monoamines.

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25
Q

Cell Body

A

The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus (with DNA) and the organelles, but not the projections such as the axon or dendrites

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26
Q

Cerebrum

A

The largest part of the human brain associated with higher order functioning, such as thinking, perceiving, planning, and understanding language, as well as the control of voluntary behavior

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27
Q

Cerebellum

A

A large structure located at the roof of i the hindbrain that helps control the coordination of movement by making connections to the pons, medulla, spinal cord, and thalamus. It also may be involved in aspects of motor learning.

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28
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

A sheet of tissue covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum.

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29
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

A liquid found within the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord

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30
Q

Circadian Rhythm

A

A cycle of behavior or physiological change lasting approximately 24 hours

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31
Q

Cochlea

A

A snail-shaped, fluid-filled organ of the inner ear responsible for converting sound into electrical potentials to produce an auditory sensation

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32
Q

Cognition

A

The process or processes by which an organism gains knowledge or becomes aware of events or objects in its environment and uses that knowledge for comprehension and problem-solving

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33
Q

Cone

A

A primary receptor cell for vision located in the retina. It is sensitive to color and is used primarily for daytime vision.

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34
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

The large bundle of nerve fibers linking the left and right cerebral hemispheres

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35
Q

Cortisol

A

A hormone manufactured by the adrenal cortex. In humans, cortisol is secreted in the greatest quantities before dawn, readying the body for activities of the coming day

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36
Q

Cranial Nerve

A

A nerve that carries sensory and motor output for the head and neck region. There are 12 cranial nerves

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37
Q

Declarative Memory

A

The ability to learn and consciously remember everyday facts and events

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38
Q

Depression

A

A psychiatric disorder characterized by sadness, hopelessness, pessimism, loss of interest in life, reduced emotional wellbeing, and abnoralities in sleep, appetite, and energy level

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39
Q

Dendrite

A

A treelike extension of the neuron cell body. The dendrite is the primary site for receiving and integrating information from other neurons

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40
Q

Dopamine

A

A catecholamine neurotransmitter present in three circuits of the brain: one that regulates movement; a second thought to be important for cognition and emotion; and a third that regulates the endocrine system. Deficits of dopamine in the motor circuit are associated with Parkinson’s disease. Abnormalities in the second circuit have been implicated in schizophrenia

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41
Q

Down Syndrome

A

A condition that typically occurs when, at the time of conception, an extra copy of chromosome 21 is present in the egg. This genetic anomaly is associated with physical and developmental characteristics, including mild to moderate intellectual disabilities; low muscle tone; and an increased risk of congenital heart defects, respiratory problems, and digestive tract obstruction

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42
Q

Drug Addiction

A

Loss of control over drug intake or compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, despite adverse consequences

43
Q

Endocannabinoids

A

Lipid-derived messengers sometimes referred to as the brain’s marijuana. These messengers control the release of neurotransmitters, usually by inhibiting them, and can affect the immune system and other cellular parameters. Endocannabinoids also play an important role in the control of behaviors.

44
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

A technology used to record electrical activity of the human brain in respone to a variety of stimuli and activities

45
Q

Endocrine Gland

A

An organ that secretes a hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate cellular activity of certain other organs

46
Q

Endorphins

A

Neurotransmitters produced in the brain that generate cellular and behavioral effects like those of morphine

47
Q

Epilepsy

A

A disorder characterized by repeated seizures, which are caused by abnormal excitation of large groups of neurons in various brain regions. Epilepsy can be treated with many types of anticonvulsant medications

48
Q

Epinephrine

A

A hormone, released by the adrenal medulla and specialized sites in the brain. During times of stress, epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is quickly released into the bloodstream. It then serves to put the body into a general state of arousal, which enables it to cope with the challenge

49
Q

Estrogens

A

A group of sex hormones found more abundantly in females than males. They are responsible for female sexual maturation and other functions

50
Q

Excitation

A

A change in the electrical state of a neuron that is associated with an enhanced probability of action potentials

51
Q

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

A

A hormone released by the pituitary gland that stimulates the production of sperm in the male and growth of the follicle (which produces the egg) in the female

52
Q

Forebrain

A

The largest part of the brain, which includes the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia. The forebrain is credited with the highest intellectual functions

53
Q

Fovea

A

The centermost part of the eye located in the center of the retina and contains only cone photoreceptors

54
Q

Frontal lobe

A

one of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex. the frontal lobe has a role in controlling movement and in the planning and coordinating of behavior.

55
Q

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A

A technology that uses magnetic fields to detect activity in the brain by monitoring blood flow

56
Q

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

A

An amino acid transmitter in the brain whose primary function is to inhibit the firing og nerve cells

57
Q

Glia

A

Specialized cells that nourish and support neurons

58
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Hormones that produce an array of effects in response to stress. Some of the actions of glucocorticoids help mediate the stress response, while other, slower actions counteract the primary response to stress and help re-establish homeostasis

59
Q

Glutamate

A

An amino acid neurotransmitter that acts to excite neurons. Glutamate stimulates N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA). AMPA receptors have been implicated in activities ranging from learning and memory to development and specification of nerve contacts in developing animals. Stimulation of NMDA receptors may may promote beneficial changes, whereas overstimulation may be a cause of nerve cell damage or death in neurological trauma and stroke.

60
Q

Gonad

A

primary sex gland: testis in the male and ovary in the female

61
Q

gray matter

A

portions of the brain that are gray in color because they are composed mainly of neural cell bodies, rather than myelinated nerve fibers, which care white

62
Q

growth cone

A

A distinctive structure at the growing end of most axons. It is the site where new material is added to the axon

63
Q

hair cells

A

sensory receptors in the cochlea that convert mechanical vibrations to electrical signals; they in turn excite the 30,000 fibers of the auditory nerve that carry the signals to the brainstem

64
Q

hindbrain

A

the most posterior part pf the brain comprises the pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum

65
Q

hippocampus

A

a seahorse-shaped structure located within the brain and considered an important part of the limbic system.One of the most studied areas of the brain, it is involved in learning, memory, and emotion

66
Q

homeostasis

A

the normal equilibrium of body function

67
Q

hormones

A

chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands to regulate the activity of target cells. they play a role in sexual development, calcium and bone metabolism, growth, and many other activities

68
Q

huntington’s disease

A

a genetic disorder characterized b involuntary jerking movements of the limbs, torso, and facial muscles, often accompanied by mood swings, depression, irritability, slurred speech, and clumsinessq

69
Q

hypothalamus

A

a complex brain structure composed of many nuclei with various functions, including regulating the activities of internal organs, monitoring information from the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland, and regulating sleep and appetite.

70
Q

interneuron

A

a neuron that exclusively signals another neuron

71
Q

inhibition

A

a synaptic message that prevents a recipient neuron from firing

72
Q

ions

A

electrically charged atoms or molecules

73
Q

ion channels

A

selectively permeable water-filled channels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions or other small molecules to enter or leave the cell

74
Q

long-term memory

A

the final phase of memory, in which information storage may last from hours to a lifetime

75
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

a technique that uses magnetic fields to create a high-quality, three-dimensional image of organs and structures inside the body. this technology is noninvasive and does not expose the body to x-rays or other radiation

76
Q

magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

A

using the same machinery as MRI, MRS measures the concentration of certain chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, instead of blood flow

77
Q

magnetoencephalography (MEG)

A

a technique that can quantitatively measure the strength of activity in various regions of the brain at millisecond resolution

78
Q

metabolism

A

the sum of all physical and chemical changes that take place within an organism and all energy transformations that occur within living cells

79
Q

midbrain

A

the most anterior segment of the brainstem. with the pons and medulla, the midbrain is involved in many functions, including regulation of heart rate, respiration, pain perception, and movement

80
Q

migration

A

the process whereby new neurons find their proper position in the brain

81
Q

mitochondria

A

small cylindrical organelles inside cells that provide energy for the cell by converting sugar and oxygen into special energy molecules, called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

82
Q

motor neuron

A

a neuron that carries information from the central nervous system to muscle

83
Q

motor unit

A

a functional unit made up of an alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it contains and controls, ranging from a few to a hundred or more

84
Q

mutations

A

changes in DNA, such as “misspellings” in the gene sequence or incorrect amounts of DNA, that can prevent a gene from functioning properly

85
Q

multiple sclerosis (MS)

A

an autoimmune disease in which the bosy’s natural defenses attack the myelin sheath covering the axons of neurons in the central nervous system. symptoms nclude numbness, clumsiness, and blurred vision

86
Q

myasthenia gravis

A

a disease in which acetylcholine receptors on muscle cells are destroyed so that muscles can no longer respond to the acetylcholine signal to contract. symptoms include muscular weakness and progressively more common bouts of fatigue. the disease’s cause is unknown but is more common in females than in males; it usually strikes between the ages of 20 and 50

87
Q

myelin sheath

A

compact fatty material that surrounds and insulates the axons of some neurons and accelerates the transmission of electrical signals

88
Q

NMDA Receptors

A

N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, one of three major classes of glutamate receptors, which have been implicated in activities ranging from learning and memory to development and specification of nerve contacts in a developing animal

89
Q

nerve growth factor

A

a substance whose role is to guide neuronal growth during embryonic development, especially in the peripheral nervous system. nerve growth factor also probably helps sustain neurons in the adult

90
Q

nerve terminal

A

the tip of the axon where neurotransmitters are released

91
Q

neural induction

A

the process during embryonic development whereby molecules trigger ectoderm tissue to become nerve tissue

92
Q

neurogenesis

A

the production and growth of new nerve cells during development and, in select brain regions, throughout life

93
Q

neuron

A

a nerve cell specialized for the transmission of information and characterized by long, fibrous projections called axons and shorter, branchlike projections called dendrites

94
Q

neuroscientist

A

scientists who specialize in the study if the brain and the nervous system

95
Q

neurotransmitter

A

a chemical released by neurons at a synapse for the purpose of relaying information to other neurons via receptors

96
Q

nociceptors

A

in animals, nerve endings that signal the sensation of pain. in humans, they are called pain receptors

97
Q

norepinephrine

A

a catecholamine neurotransmitter produced both in the brain and in the peripheral nervous system. norepinephrine is involved in arousal and sleep regulation, mood, and blood pressure

98
Q

occipital lobe

A

one of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex. the occipital lobe plays a role in processing visual information

99
Q

olfactory bulb

A

a round, knoblie structure of the brain responsible for processing the sense of smell. specialized olfactory receptor cells are located in a small patch of mucous membrane lining the roof of the nose. axons of these sensory cells pass through perforations in the overlying bone and enter two elongated olfactory bulbs lying on top of the bone

100
Q

orexin neurons

A

specialized neurons that provide an excitatory signal to the arousal system, particularly to the norepinephrine neurons. orexin activation plays a critical role in preventing abnormal transitions into REM sleep during the day, as occurs in narcolepsy

101
Q

parasympathetic nervous sytem

A

a branch of the autonomic nervous system concerned with the conservation of the body’s energy and resources during relaxxed states

102
Q

parietal lobe

A

one of the four subdivisions of the cerebral cortex. the parietal lovbe plays a role in sensory processes, attention, and language

103
Q

parkinson’s disease

A

a movement disorder caused by death of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra located in the midbrain. symptoms include slowness of movement, muscular rigidity and walking and balance impairment

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