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unit 3 vocab psychology > vocab > Flashcards

vocab Flashcards

memorization

1
Q

What is a cross-sectional study?

A

A research method that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.

Often used to observe differences among various groups.

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2
Q

What is a longitudinal study?

A

A research method that follows the same subjects over a period of time.

Useful for studying changes and developments over time.

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3
Q

Define teratogen.

A

An agent or factor that causes malformation in an embryo or fetus.

Examples include drugs, alcohol, and certain infections.

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4
Q

What does maturation refer to?

A

The process of development in which an individual becomes capable of growth and change.

Involves physical, cognitive, and emotional development.

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5
Q

What is the rooting reflex?

A

An automatic response in infants to turn their head toward a stimulus that touches their cheek.

Helps infants find food.

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6
Q

What is the visual cliff?

A

An experimental apparatus used to test depth perception in infants.

It creates the illusion of a sudden drop-off to assess fear of heights.

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7
Q

Define critical period.

A

A specific time frame during which certain events must occur for normal development.

Important for language acquisition and emotional bonding.

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8
Q

What is imprinting?

A

A rapid learning process that occurs in a young animal during a critical period.

Often involves attachment to a caregiver.

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9
Q

What is puberty?

A

The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction.

Involves physical and hormonal changes.

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10
Q

What are primary sex characteristics?

A

Physical features directly related to reproduction.

Examples include ovaries and testes.

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11
Q

What are secondary sex characteristics?

A

Features that appear during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Examples include breast development and body hair.

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12
Q

What is menarche?

A

The first occurrence of menstruation in a female.

Marks the beginning of reproductive capability.

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13
Q

What is spermarche?

A

The first occurrence of ejaculation in males.

Indicates the onset of sexual maturity.

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14
Q

What is menopause?

A

The time in a woman’s life when menstrual cycles cease.

Typically occurs in middle age and signifies the end of reproductive years.

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15
Q

Define sex.

A

The biological distinction between male and female.

Based on reproductive systems and functions.

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16
Q

Define gender.

A

The roles, behaviors, and identities that society associates with being male or female.

Influenced by cultural and social factors.

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17
Q

Who is Jean Piaget?

A

A developmental psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children.

Proposed stages that children go through as they develop.

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18
Q

What is a schema?

A

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information.

Schemas can change with new experiences.

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19
Q

What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?

A

Assimilation involves integrating new information into existing schemas; accommodation involves altering schemas to fit new information.

Both are essential processes in learning.

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20
Q

What is the sensorimotor stage?

A

The first stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, occurring from birth to about 2 years.

Characterized by exploration through senses and motor actions.

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21
Q

What is object permanence?

A

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Develops during the sensorimotor stage.

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22
Q

What is the preoperational stage?

A

The second stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, from ages 2 to 7.

Marked by symbolic thinking but limited logic.

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23
Q

Define conservation.

A

The understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or arrangement.

Typically develops in the concrete operational stage.

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24
Q

What is reversibility?

A

The ability to recognize that actions can be reversed.

Important for understanding conservation.

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25
Q

Define animism.

A

The belief that inanimate objects have feelings and intentions.

Common in the preoperational stage of development.

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26
Q

What is egocentrism?

A

The inability to see a situation from another person’s perspective.

Characteristic of the preoperational stage.

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27
Q

What is theory of mind?

A

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one’s own.

Develops in early childhood.

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28
Q

What is the concrete operational stage?

A

The third stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, from ages 7 to 11.

Characterized by logical thinking about concrete events.

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29
Q

What is the difference between logical and systematic thinking?

A

Logical thinking is reasoning based on rules, while systematic thinking involves a step-by-step approach to problem-solving.

Both are important in the concrete operational stage.

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30
Q

What is the formal operational stage?

A

The fourth stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory, beginning at age 12.

Involves abstract and hypothetical thinking.

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31
Q

Who is Lev Vygotsky?

A

A psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development.

Emphasized the role of social interaction in learning.

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32
Q

What is scaffolding?

A

A teaching method that involves providing support to students as they learn new concepts.

Gradually reducing assistance as competence increases.

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33
Q

What is the zone of proximal development?

A

The difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance.

Central to Vygotsky’s theory of learning.

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34
Q

What is crystallized intelligence?

A

The accumulation of knowledge and skills that are valued by one’s culture.

Typically increases with age.

35
Q

What is fluid intelligence?

A

The ability to reason and solve new problems independently of previously acquired knowledge.

Tends to decline with age.

36
Q

What is dementia?

A

A decline in cognitive function that interferes with daily life.

Can affect memory, thinking, and social abilities.

37
Q

What is the difference between phonemes and morphemes?

A

Phonemes are the smallest units of sound; morphemes are the smallest units of meaning.

Both are essential in language development.

38
Q

List the stages of language development.

A
  • Cooing
  • Babbling
  • One-word stage
  • Two-word stage
  • Telegraphic speech

Each stage reflects increasing complexity in language use.

39
Q

What is telegraphic speech?

A

A form of communication in which only essential words are used.

Common in young children as they begin to speak.

40
Q

What is overgeneralization in language development?

A

The application of a grammatical rule too broadly, leading to incorrect forms.

Example: using ‘goed’ instead of ‘went’.

41
Q

What is ecological systems theory?

A

A framework that views human development as influenced by different environmental systems.

Includes micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono systems.

42
Q

What are the three types of parenting styles?

A
  • Authoritative
  • Authoritarian
  • Permissive

Each style impacts child development in different ways.

43
Q

What is secure attachment?

A

A strong emotional bond between a child and caregiver characterized by trust and comfort.

Leads to positive outcomes in development.

44
Q

What are the three types of insecure attachment?

A
  • Avoidant
  • Ambivalent
  • Disorganized

Each type reflects different responses to caregiver interactions.

45
Q

Define temperament.

A

An individual’s innate emotional and behavioral characteristics.

Influences how one reacts to the environment.

46
Q

What is the social clock?

A

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Varies by culture and historical context.

47
Q

What is parallel play?

A

A type of play where children play alongside each other but do not interact.

Common in early childhood.

48
Q

What is the imaginary audience/personal fable concept?

A

The belief that one is the center of attention and that their experiences are unique.

Common in adolescents.

49
Q

Define emerging adulthood.

A

A developmental stage from late teens to mid-20s characterized by exploration and self-discovery.

Marks the transition from adolescence to adulthood.

50
Q

List the eight stages of psychosocial development.

A
  • Trust vs. Mistrust
  • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
  • Initiative vs. Guilt
  • Industry vs. Inferiority
  • Identity vs. Role Confusion
  • Intimacy vs. Isolation
  • Generativity vs. Stagnation
  • Integrity vs. Despair

Developed by Erik Erikson.

51
Q

What are adverse childhood experiences?

A

Stressful or traumatic events occurring before the age of 18.

Can lead to negative health outcomes later in life.

52
Q

What are the four identity statuses?

A
  • Identity diffusion
  • Identity foreclosure
  • Identity moratorium
  • Identity achievement

Reflect different paths in identity development.

53
Q

What is learning?

A

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Involves various processes and methods.

54
Q

Define associative learning.

A

A learning process in which a connection is made between two events or stimuli.

Includes classical and operant conditioning.

55
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus.

Developed by Ivan Pavlov.

56
Q

What are the components of classical conditioning?

A
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
  • Unconditioned Response (UR)
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
  • Conditioned Response (CR)

Fundamental to understanding classical conditioning.

57
Q

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

A

The process through which a conditioned response decreases when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

Indicates a loss of learned behavior.

58
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause following extinction.

Suggests that the learned behavior is not entirely forgotten.

59
Q

What is stimulus discrimination?

A

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.

Important in refining learned responses.

60
Q

What is stimulus generalization?

A

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Can lead to broader responses than intended.

61
Q

What is taste aversion?

A

A learned avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with illness.

A unique form of classical conditioning.

62
Q

What is higher-order conditioning?

A

A process where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, allowing the new stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

Extends the principles of classical conditioning.

63
Q

What is counter-conditioning?

A

A technique used to replace an undesirable response to a stimulus with a more desirable one.

Often used in therapy.

64
Q

What is one-trial conditioning?

A

A form of learning that occurs after just one pairing of the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus.

Common in taste aversion.

65
Q

What is habituation?

A

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations.

Indicates learning and adaptation.

66
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A learning process that involves rewards and punishments to influence behavior.

Developed by B.F. Skinner.

67
Q

What is reinforcement?

A

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Can be positive or negative.

68
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

Adding a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Examples include rewards or praise.

69
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Example: taking pain relief medication.

70
Q

What is punishment?

A

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

Can be positive or negative.

71
Q

What is positive punishment?

A

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Example: receiving a spanking.

72
Q

What is negative punishment?

A

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Example: taking away a toy.

73
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

A

Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs; secondary reinforcers are learned and associated with primary reinforcers.

Examples: food vs. money.

74
Q

List the reinforcement schedules.

A
  • Fixed-ratio
  • Variable-ratio
  • Fixed-interval
  • Variable-interval

Each schedule affects the rate of behavior differently.

75
Q

What is shaping?

A

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that are closer to the desired behavior.

Useful in teaching complex behaviors.

76
Q

What is instinctive drift?

A

The tendency for an animal’s innate behaviors to interfere with learned behaviors.

Challenges the principles of operant conditioning.

77
Q

What is superstitious behavior?

A

Behavior that is reinforced by coincidental outcomes rather than actual reinforcement.

Common in various cultures.

78
Q

What is social learning?

A

Learning that occurs through observing and imitating others.

Proposed by Albert Bandura.

79
Q

What is vicarious conditioning?

A

Learning that occurs by observing the consequences of another person’s behavior.

Demonstrates the influence of social contexts.

80
Q

What is modeling?

A

The process of learning behaviors by observing others.

Important in social learning theory.

81
Q

What is insight?

A

The sudden realization of a problem’s solution without trial-and-error.

Often involves cognitive processes.

82
Q

What is a cognitive map?

A

A mental representation of one’s physical environment.

Used to navigate and understand surroundings.

83
Q

What is latent learning?

A

Learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and is not immediately reflected in behavior.

Can be demonstrated later when needed.

unit 3 vocab psychology (1 decks)

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