Vocab Flashcards
Sequential bilingualism
Bilinguals who learn there 2nd language after the age of 3
Bilingual
Uses two or more languages *includes dialects (Grosjean)
Simultaneous bilinguals
Bilinguals who learn there 2nd language before the age of 3
BFLA
Bilingual first language aquisition
Passive exposure
when the language is present in the environment of the learner
CSLA
Child second language acquisition
Passive bilingualism
being able to comprehend but not speak a language
Replacive bilingualism
when a second language becomes a speakers dominant language
Cross-language influence
refers to both negative and positive transfer.
Can play a big role in accent, with the dominating languaging heavily influencing the segmental and suprasegmental habits of a speaker
Parental responses to code-mixing
Can indicate the parents language beliefs
Minimal grasp: acting confused
Expressed guess: did you mean ‘cake’?
Adult repetition
Move on strategy
Code-switching
How to test babies?
High-amplitude sucking
Head-turn preference
Statistical regularities
How likely a pattern occurs
Transitional probabilities
How likely a combination of segments are in a language
Statistical cues
statistical regularities
Transitional probability
Gradual language separation hypothesis
Byers-Heinlen et al.
Children are born perceptional sensitive enough to separate out languages when they are exposed to them
separation happens gradually over all processing levels during language development
Switching cost
the amount of work necessary to access certain skills sets within a bilinguals repertoire
Perceptual categorization
This word looks and sounds like this
A sound sounds and looks like that
Conceptual categorization
categorization based on the understanding of what something is/how it functions
Things than can effect accent formation
Maturational aspects
Language input
Speakers motivation and attitudes
Physical/cognitive:
Lack of brain plasticity
Muscular constraints
Phonological decline or deafness
AOA
amount of experience in language
Quality/type of input
Languages dominance
Order of acquirement
Social:
Speakers motivation
speakers attitude towards identity building in the new language
Phonological deafness
the inability to recognize either the nuance of a L2 sound or the sound in its entirety
What happens to non-native sounds?
Similar sounds undergo Assimilation into the perceptually closest L1
Dissimilar sounds do not undergo Assimulation
Second Language Speech learning model
Flege and Bohn
1) phonetic categories are based on statistical input distributions
2) L2 learners of any age make use of the same mechanisms and processes to learn L2
3)L2 speakers have differing production and perception skills from a native speaker because applying the mechanisms & processes that worked for their L1 acquirement result in a differing outcome
Code switching
Vs
Code-mixing
Code switching has a level of intentionality. The bilingual might switch in order to align themselves with the conventions, values and beliefs associated with a language. They might also switch as part of an intentional communicatory strategy.
Code-mixing is the same thing but without intention. It can also be defined as the confused blending of languages as see in the language separating stages in bilingual children
There is disagreement amongst researcher about where the line between code-switching and cod-mixing should be drawn on the continuum of intentionality.
There is also disagreement on where the line should be drawn on what is considered code-switching vs lexical borrowing
Inter-sentential switching
Switching that happens at the boundaries of sentences.
Jeg snakket med quinn i går. She had a wonderful thanksgiving.
Intra-sentential switching
Switching that happens inside of an sentence.
And I was all like det er ikke bra.
Tag-switching
The tagging on of phrases onto a sentence
Det var gankse kaldt ute, ya know?
Intra-word switching
When parts of words get mixed together
Nosete
Language mode theory
Grosjean
The theory that a bilingual navigates on a situation continuum of language modes ranging from monolingual mode to bilingual mode. Any point on the spectrum would represent the language mechanisms and processes in use at that time.
There are two questions which this theory concerns itself with
1) what language is being spoken (language choice is dependent on this)
2) Is it appropriate to introduce another language (where on the continuum from bilingual to monolingual mode is dependent on this)
Adaptive control Hypothesis
What experiments support this hypothesis?
Green and abutalebi
There isnt a continuum but rather different contexts in which a bilingual will activate/inhibit selected language mechanisms and processes.
These contexts are: single-language context, dual-language context and dense code-switching context
Language control processes themselves adapt to the recurrent demands placed on them by the interaction context
Experiment 1: Kapiley and Mishra
we examined if bilingual speakers are sensitive towards an
interlocutor’s (cartoon) relative language proficiency when they voluntarily selected a
language for object naming. These results provide strong support for the adaptive
control hypothesis, showing that bilingual speakers are sensitive to their interlocutor’s
language needs and this influences how they plan their language use. The results
provide evidence of speakers taking into consideration the language proficiency of
interlocutors, suggesting extreme adaptability of the bilingual mind
Experiment 2: Molnar, Ibáñez-Molina and Carreiras
Familiarize bilinguals with language of a novel character. Measure the response time in a audio-visual lexical decision task. Early bilinguals where able to establish connection between the characters and their language introduced to them in the familiariation phase and thus had shorter reaction times than late bilinguals. This demonstrates the early bilinguals proactive control of their language production
Proactive control
earlier preparatory control
Reactive control
late responsive control
Intelligibility
How well a listener’ perception matches the intentions of the speaker. True understanding
Derwing and munro measured with transcriptions, t/f questions and asked for summaries
Comprehensibility
Is the perceived level of understanding done by the speaker
Had them rate how well they understood from 1-7
Critical period hypothesis
The hypothesis that there is a critical period of language acquirement whose end is characterized by a reduction in a learner’s ability to adapt or organize their brain.
In accordance with this theory 2nd language acquirement would result in an accent in learners as young as 11
Sensitive period
new name for critical period which does not have a harsh cut of point
Speech learning model
Flege
1) That a L2 sound that is perceptually close to an L1 sound will be replaced by that L1 sound
2) That there are multiple L2 that are perceptually close to the an L1 sound, the L2s will merge to the corresponding L1 sound
Accent study about L2 having native level accent
Bongaerts, Planken and Schils (1995)
They wanted to see how well late bilinguals could pass as native speakers. They asked native dutch speakers to read sentences in english to native speakers of british english and were very successful in fooling them.
They concluded that the amount/quality of input, the speaker’s motivation and quality of training where key factors to success
Piske, MacKay and Flege (2001)
Later pointed out that this could have more to do with how close the speakers L1 is to the L2, the age of acquisition (how much time they have had with the language), and their motivation
What contributes to how perceived ones accentedness is?
Most perceived error is vowel and consonant error
Followed by word stress, rhythm, intonation and speech rate
What affects comprehensibility in regards to accent?
Word stress, vowel reduction, speech rate/fluency, other errors
Integrative motivation
the wish to adapt and integrate into the new culture (with language as the means)
Intrasumental motivation
the wish to learn the language for practical reasons
What is being referred to by ‘attitude’ in regards to SLA?
The need to build a new identity
This affects accent through the willingness to project the new identity through new sound patterns
What kind of attitudes can SLL have?
Attidude towards:
The language itself (desire to improve accent, personal and professional reasons for learning)
The culture/country (feeling comfortable within the idea of the culture/plans for longterm residency)
Actual experiences (positive and negative during language acquirement or with any of the factors spoken about prior)
Cross-linguistic influence
progressive transfer: Stuff from prior languages transferring to new language (absolute transfer from L1, privilege transfer from L2, transfer from any previously acquired language)
Regressive transfer: Stuff from later languages transferring into previously acquired langs
Aphasia
Bilingual aphasia
When a person has a loss or regression in language production and /or comprehension due to an injury to the brain. This can be caused by trauma to the brain or by other sicknesses such as a stroke (very common in the elderly)
It’s the same for bilinguals, but it is either in 1 or multiple of their languages with potential unequal recovery
What are the normal types of Aphasia?
Broca’s aphasia: affects production of languages
Anomia aphasia: affects the ability to name
Agraphia aphasia: affects the ability to produce written language
Wernicke’s aphasia: affects comprehension of languages
Agnosia aphasia: language deafness
Alexia aphasia: word blindness
What are the phases of aphasia that a bilingual goes through?
Acute phase: Many language disorders a displayed by patient (muteness, involuntary mixing ect)
Lesion phase: around 4-5 months after. The language disorders are now associated with area and the extent of the lession
Late phase: a few months later. There can be multiple paths of recovery observed, and more recovery can still happen
Name the types of recoveries one can have when afflicted by bilingual aphasia
Parallel recovery: languages recovery at about the same rate
Differential recovery: Languages recover at different rates.
Selective recovery: Only parts of a give language is recovered. Only one language is recovered
Successive recovery: One language only starts to recover after another has been maximally recovered
Blended Recovery: The mixing of language elements
Antagonistic recovery: A language regresses as another progresses
Alternating antagonistic: a switching back in forth in language regression and progression
What are the biggest factors in language recovery?
Kuzmina et al. (2019) found out that the first language a person learned, a person’s dominant language(s) were commonly the ones that recovered best
Lesion cite
Pre-morbid proficiency
Rehabilitation enviroment
Structural difference between languages
AOA
Code-switching in aphasia patients can be…
1) A sign of a deficit in control mechanisms
2) An intentional communicatory strategy
Name the different types of intra-sentential switching
Tag switching
Alternation: Når du begynner med et språk but finish with another
Insertion: Når du have a word i midten av en setning.
Dense switching: Når der er many different typer switchings occuring i et setning liksom
Lexical prosessing
The ability to connect form and meaning: to connect words to their meaning
Executive functions
These are a set of mental skills which people possess such as memory, organization, prioritization, focus ect
What are domains in regards to linguistics
What is Montanari’s hypothesis about language development in connection to domains
Domains are situations where typical people talk about typical things in a typical setting.
Examples of this can be studies, family or professional domains
Montanari
Languages used in reduced domains with reduced people develop at a reduced rate compared to languages spoken with many people in many domains
The complimentary principle
Whose principle is this?
That languages will fill in the gaps for one another so that a person has on complete language repertoire to utilize when communicating
Grosjean
Lower subjective frequency
Bilinguals have there input split between languages, as a result they are not exposed to words as often or as in as many contexts as with monolinguals.
These means that they will have a less nuanced connection between form and meaning.
The weaker link hypothesis
Gollan et al. (2005
Bilinguals have lower subjective frequencies of words and this have a weaker link between form and meaning
Consequences of bilingualism
What are some experiments that demonstrate this?
Smaller vocabulary size
Lower subjective frequencies of words
Less automatized lexical retrieval
Interference from the language not in use
Bialykstok et al (2010)
Experiment showed that monolingual and bilingual children had the same receptive vocabulary in domains they shared (school) but differing ones in domains they didn’t share
Gollan et al. (2005)
Bilinguals took a longer time to produce words in a picture naming exercise than monolinguals
What is the assumption that led to the claim that bilinguals have greater executive functions than monolinguals?
That using multiple languages requires the activation of executive functions, and thus these skills are trained and become better/stronger
That executive functions can be trained at all.
Is it true that bilinguals have greater executive functions than monolinguals? Why is it thought that they did
No, there is no conclusive evidence that bilinguals have greater executive functions than monolinguals.
The reason why this misconception was perpetuated in the study is because of publication bias. There are actually mixed results in the field.
There are actually many you question how a language which was fully acquired would continue to activate these skills as they are needed moreso for the acquirement of the language.
Repertoire
A set of linguistic skills which the speaker has access to in order to communicate. This term ignores language names in favor of viewing them as different skills sets that vary across domains
Language ideology
Is a set of cultural values, norms or belief associated with the use of a language.
One could be that speakers of french of inherently romantic
What factors can affect a persons language variance
Age, culture, ethnicity, geographic location, personal identity, gender, social class
What are the 3 language ideologies that Horner and Weber summarized from Pennycooks 6 ideologies
Colonial celebration/ laissez-faire liberalisme: The celebrated furthering of colonially connected language. As can be seen by the commercialization of english
Linguistic imperialism and linguistic human rights: The spread of colonially connected languages viewed as a continued spread of coloniality which must be fought back against
Post-colonial performativity/Linguistic hybridity: Language to be left as it is/how it is changing. Allowing for a mix to naturally develop
Diglossia
Ferguson made, Fishman expanded
When there are two, or more, languages in a society which are used in differing domains
Vertical bilingualism
the same as diglossia
Horizontal bilingualism
When 2 languages have the same status both in government policies and at home
Linguistic continua
The spectrum where one language blends into another
Germanic continua from norwegia-danish-swedish
Zooming out there is one continua with smaller continui like the germanic one
Pidgin vs creole languages
Canyou name an example of a creole language?
Pidgin is in reference to the limited communication done in lingua francas between two communities with different languages
Creole languages developed from the use of a langue franca between two societies with different languages that eventually became their own distinct language and then become a native language for at least some of the speakers
EX Tok pisin from Papua New Ginea
Inter-language variation
variation between languages
Intra-language variation
variation between a languages variations
Language shift
When a society shift from one language to another language which is more dominant or has more value, is spoken by a dominating society/part of society
Covert prestige
The importance put on a language because of its ties to the speaker’s identity
reactive ethinicity
the embracing of a facet that corresponds with an ethnic identity as a form of resistance
Examples of english languages variations
African american english: Habitual be/double multiple negations
Carabbean nation language
Singlish
Old english
Achieved identity
This is an identity which one assigns to themselves
How we see ourselves
Ascribed identity
this is an identity which one is assigned by another
How people categorize us
What are Gee’s for different perspectives of idenitity
Nature identity: Something assigned to us via biology, natural with our birth: twin, daughter, sister, ect
Institutional identity: Identities assigned to us in relation to a role with which we play within an institution: Citizen, doctor, pastor, customer
Discourse identity: the identity which we reveal through our interaction with others: serious, loving, excitable
Affinity identity: Identities formed in participation with groups of likeminded individuals: dungeon master, a super fan
Essentialism in terms of identity
vs
Social constructivism in terms of identity
That we have, at our core, a true and unchangeable identity which is born to us
vs
Our identity is made up of many layers which were co-created with the immediate and at large society around us. It is therefore always subject to change
There is also a fun mixture of the two where the inner layers of a persons identity are seen as deeper, more fixed and, therefore, harder to change
National idenitity
This is the imagined identity that embodies a nation and is closely associated with the dominant ethnic group within a society
The ethnicity to which nationalist ideological identification refers
The non-dominant ethnic identities remain just ethnic
What are some sociolinguistic complications with the term code-switching?
This implies that languages are bounded entities which can be switched back and forth from/between
What is the difference between code-switching and trans-languaging
trans-languaging suggests a full language repertoire which a bilingual can draw on without regard for
watchful adherence to the socially and politically defined boundaries of named
(and usually national and state) languages” (Otheguy, García, and Reid, 2015
Stylization
Code-switching in order to quote or impersonate someone’s voice
What is the difference between uni-directional and vari-directional stylization?
Uni-directional occurs when the speaker aligns with the voice they are impersonating
In vari-directional stylization the evaluative positions of the speaker and voice do not align
Situational code-switching
switching to another language when the situation demands it
A speaker of another language joins the conversation
Metaphorical code-switching
the switch occurs when the speaker wishes to reposition their identity/particular values
Language crossing
When a speaker of a language code switches to a language which is not associated with them.
Carries a sense of movement across a very solid ethnic/social boundary
Indexicality
Language which is associated with something outside the purely linguistical which both creates and perpetuates a speaker’s identity through its very use
Spatial Repertoires
the available and sedimented resources that derive from
the repeated language practices of the people involved in the sets of activities
related to particular places
Structure of feelings
inner layers of a persons identity are seen as deeper, more fixed and, therefore, harder to change.
We are very attached to them
We-code vs they-code
We-code: often a societal minorities at home language
They-code: the societally dominant language
What are some complications found in the process of categorizing language varieties as either dialects or languages
Very commonly the categorization is made with mutual understandability as the differentiating factor.
This is problematic because we have languages like swedish and norwegian which are mutually intelligible and then we have certain norwegian dialects which aren’t
What is the main criteria for determining if a language is threatened
The main criterion of language endangerment is when a minority language is no longer used in family transmission, which can then lead to a language shift
Family transmission of a language
when the language is being passed down between generations
Language shift
When a more dominant language overtakes a minority language.
It could do so because it is perceived as being more valuable. As in, it’s use is associated with the gain of cultural and material capital (instrumental value).
Can also be because a society with a dominating culture colonizes another
This occurs over time with the dominating language continuously encroaching on ever increasing domains of language
What is language revitalization?
What is the main factor that affects the success of language revitalization?
It is when attempts are made to increase the amount of speakers of a language
When it is simultaneously promoted by a grassroots movement and by the state,
as well as being supported by international minority rights organizations
Lingua Franca
a language used between to groups with different languages
What are the two biggest factors that lead to the increasing number of threatened languages in our global world?
1) As a more global world the use of a Lingua franca becomes necessary to facilitate global communication.
This results in the lingua francas of the world become a dominating language which can then overtake non-dominating languages
2) Language politics which promote one language as the national language
What is language contact?
What can result from language contact? What about in a language shift context?
When two or more languages make contact through with one another via communication.
This can result in new language contact variations as the languages involved influence/ mix with one another
L1 remains, L2 isnt acquired
L2 is acquired, S1 remains and S2 also remains
L2 is acquired and replaces L1
What is a standard language/a standard language variation
it is a language associated with a grammar system
Is used at the national level
Functions as a shared language for a society
In a two language society, both languages normally have equal status: true/false?
In bilingual communities the two languages rarely meet on an equal
footing; one of the languages tends to have a more dominant position, higher
status, greater degree of linguistic infrastructure
What are the grades of threatened from ‘safe language’ to ‘dead languages’
“safe” (not endangered)
“vulnerable” (not spoken by children outside the home)
“definitely endangered” (children not speaking)
severely endangered” (only spoken by the oldest generations)
“critically endangered” (spoken by few members of the oldest generation, often semi-speakers)
“extinct” (no living speakers), based on intergenerational transfer:
What are the benefits and consequences of the standardization of a endangered languages during the process of revitalization?
Benefits:
A standard language is needed for teaching (grammar, mutual understanding, a core with which to build onto)
Consequences:
may be seen as too artificial by the speakers and not be widely accepted
within the community
Can erase the variation found within the endangered language
Can ignore the actual use of the endangered language (how it has mixed with the dominating language) as we can see in Linguistic imperialism and linguistic human rights
What are some factors that attribute to the conservation of a language
political factors, cultural/identity resistance, geographic concentration, the education system, it’s use as a written language
Linguistic landscape
this is the smorgasbord of semiotic resources that are used in public spaces
Native monolingualism
the assumption ones native language is restricted to one named language
Family language policy
What are some beliefs surrounding the enactment of a family language policy in regards to children’s language use and proficiency?
King, Fogle, and Logan-Terry,
2008
The things families do to actively shape the language use in their households/there childrens’ language use
Is argued that it is important because it affects a child’s language development, child’s eventual school success, the vitality and maintenance
Not true
Sites of control
places where languages hierarchies are (re)produced or resisted
Schools, home, work, churches govement, ect
Moyer 2013/2007: ethnographic research on ling practices for service providers
Found that minority languages were delegitimized, systems of support where insufficient (translator leaving out bits of information from patient’s speech)
Othering, and intolerance (they took down the posters with the minor language on it so that the hospital wouldnt be associated with minorities)
Codó 2008: ethnographic study of practices in bureaucracy: confirms and gives nuance to Moyer (Encounters between migrants and state employees)
The use of front and backstage languages to gatekeep information
Increases social stratification
Not just othering and intolerance, like in Moyer, but actual gatekeeping of information which also enforces roles through the cementing of the different language practices
Mayin 2012: ethnographic study of practices in bureaucracy: confirms and gives nuance to Codó:
Encounter between migrants and state workers at asylum
Gatekeeping of resources/ information and services
Presupposing of a native monolingualism (western ideology) which placed doubts on legitimacy of an applicant who claimed multiple languages as their native lang
->Clash between monolingual realities and multilingual realities
Still gatekeeping like Codó, but introduces nuance of native monolingualism
Frontstage vs backstage language
Language that is used with the disempowered group/the one being gatekept
Language used in between agents of the majority language
Tripartite model for studying family language policy
Spolsky
Study the actual language being used
study the families impact beliefs/ideologies
Study of language management: the strategies parents imploy to uphold their language policies/ideologies
(minimal grasp)
Impact beliefs
A parents belief over how much control/impact they have over their child’s language development/choices
Studies on family language policy:
What they found out
Rubino (2014): sicilian fams in austrailia in 50s-60s
*must take in full complexity of linguistic practices (full dynamics) in multiling fams (All varieties/resources in fams repertoires)
-Had OPOL policy
Yamamoto (2001): Japanese-English multilingual/interlingual fams in japan
Luykz (2005): Children are not passive recipients of lang policy
Báez (2013): Exertion of influence by school and peer groups /Children’s choices have a big impact on language use in family and community
They found out that:
OPOL does not guarantee an equal development between languages
That even OPOL families cannot adhere to their own policy and translanguage
That equal development is not guaranteed under any family policy because the children develop in a full contextual world
Shows how children exert strong influence on the family lang policy to the point of subversion
Shows powerful influence of external factors
Shows family as site of conflict
What are the end results of early bilingualism, in relation to family language policy?
Kids end up somewhere on the continuum of near balance bilingualism to receptive bilingualism
Socially dominant language
The language used in the community
What are the factors that actually affect a child’s bilingual development
The language their sibling speaks
The language being taught in schools
The language being used by their peers
The socially dominant language in general
What problems does the OPOL policy have?
Impossible to keep up in practice
Is based in mother tongue ideology
Mother tongue ideology
The idea that Speakers only have one mother tongue (also native monolingualism)
What is an experiment that is connect to the language mode theory?
How could you design an experiment to test the theory?
Grosjeans telephone chain experiment which wanted to see how both the topic, and the fluency of the listener affected the language mode of the speaker.
They had french english bilinguals both summarize stories in french AND describe cartoons to a potential listener who wasnt present.
To test topic part of experiment speakers were asked to summarize stories that had different topics and mixes of language.
Half were only in french and talked about french topics, and the cartoons only depicted french scenes.
The other half was in a mix of french and english, was about typical american activities and the cartoons depicted typical american scenes
The second part was manipulated by having different descriptions of the intended recipient which varied in their description of how proficient they were in english (french being their first language), where they used languages (domains) BUT no mention of switching practices.
Experiment measured amount of each language used for each person, and the amount and duration of pauses .
Topic was important: 10x more lang switching for bilingual stories and cartoons than monolingual ones
Person was important: Most french used for person with poor english proficiency, intermidiet swithing for language purist, and tons of switching with the laid back bilingual
Ethnicity has an affect on patient doctor relationships: T/F?
True
The Oslo nursing homes’ own non-conformity reports, as well as complaints from patients and relatives, confirm this
What characterizes medical language?
Latin words, abbreviations, low frequency terms and phrases that are specific to the medical community, a language characterized by its own grammatical system, one-liners
What challenges can foreign doctors face in norway?
Prejudice and racism, a whole new work environment with its own systems, norms and values, difficulties in communicating (lack of norwegian skills, smaller vocab), difficulty establishing a sense of competence in their work identity, dialects, the use of all scandinavian languages, talking on the telephone, understanding different language varieties (elderly patients)
What are some strategies that foreign doctors employ to overcome the difficulties of working in norway?
Use of a simple vocabulary, use of case specific vocabulary as an anchor, repetition of what the patient has said, humor, metaphors
What is most important for foreign doctors between good language competence or good cultural competence in accordance with Berbyuk Lindström (2021)?
Good language competence
What does Johannesen L, Hellesø R. Første (2019) conclude?
Native and foreign nurses journal entries where similar in that both categories of nurses similar amounts of data/number related information written down
They differed in that native nurses where able to write more detailed and precise journal entries, and that foreign nurses wrote more about the communication and ongoings between the patient and their families.
How does Hansen define interpretation?
an interpreter must first understand something that is said in one of
the languages in a multilingual conversation, and then reproduce the utterance in another language for
other people in the conversation while conveying the meaning that the original utterance was
designed to convey
Multilingualism is a phenomena mostly found in large cities like oslo?
No, we have the sami, plus asylum seekers which are placed out in small towns. Immigrants can also be found anywhere in norway, though they do tend to congregate in big cities
An example of this is Kirkenes which is on the border to Finnland and Rusia.
Multilingualism in norway is a modern phenomena: T/F
False, Norway had contact with other languages besides Old norwegian such as latin, german, danish and swedish.
What kind of language ideologies can we see in Denmark’s law which states that those who have lived in Denmark for over 3 years, must pay for their own interpreters at hospitals?
A one nation on language ideology, an ideology that views low proficiency in Danish as bad.
An ideology which dehumanizes non-speakers of Danish by denying them adequate healthcare services based on their income
What are semiotic resources?
The resources which people use to communicate. Voice, gestures, gaze.
Can also include material ways of communication such as writing, videos, music ect…
What are examples of challenges that participants of a translator facilitated conversation can face?
Different language systems, technical problems, confusion and problems created as a result of insufficient translations (relaying to much, or not enough information)
Translator facilitated conversation has a different set of communicatory rules which dictate normal communicatory phenomena such as turn taking and reparation. This is because the translator is both part of the conversation, and yet not and we therefore have to key the translator in on whether or not their services are needed (when they should jump in, or if they can stay out of the conversation)
Why is it important to create opportunities for translating between sami and norwegian in the context of language shifting, language revitalization and extinct languages?
This opportunities allow for the redevelopment of the sami language by allowing native speakers to continue to develop their own language on their own terms in the face of modernization.
This allows for the language to resist shifting while facilitating language revitalization.
This also inherently carries the connotation that sami is a language worthy of needing to be translated/and cements/protects native speakers’ rights to exist in their own language in as many domains as they can
What is the history between sami and sign-languages contact with the norwegian language?
A period of assimilating
How does translation work, work to protect peoples right and democracy?
Allows for a greater participation of the public in both the democratic process and in the ability for the advocating of participants own situations by the participants via arming them with the necessary information
What does diachronic research mean?
It is research performed with time as a relevant and necessary aspect/lens of interpretation
What is synchronic research?
Research that is done in a specific period without taking in the aspect of time
How does Coulmas (2009) define linguistic landscapes?
The study of writing on display in the public sphere.
examples of this can be tagging, bus signs, traffic signs, shop signs, posters, instructions ect
Is linguistic landscapes a modern phenoma?
No, there is a history of texts made available to the public with the intention of the public’s use of the text
Coulmas (2009) skriver: in antiquity as today, signs openly displayed were
meant to be read
What does Pavlenko and muller mean by the perennial problem?
How does it affect the joint work between study of epigraphy and social linguistics?
The perennial problem has two dimensions:
1) The infusing of past contexts with out own distorting the date that is the past context
2) The slight differences between the shared language between disciplines. Even defining the language would be a problem.
Epigraphy
the study of writings inscribed in metal, wood ect, includes today’s modern signs
Why does Pavlenko and Muller believe it is important to take the diachronic factors into consideration in the study of epigraphy?
They believe that taking a dimension of time into their study will allow their interpretation to be informed by the historical context of surrounding the object of study
he functions of individual signs and the reasons behind
the choices of language are impossible to interpret from a synchronic perspective”. They use
signs in the post-Soviet settings as an example of how, without taking the diachronic perspective,
we would lose a big part of the analysis when it comes to the “dramatic change in the formats,
functions and languages of the signage that took place in the 1992”.
“The integration of a temporal dimension in the study of linguistic landscapes enables us to
examine linguistic landscapes as a site of social, political and economic changes”
What are some of the physical challenges that can be faced in regards to the researching of past linguistic landscapes
Incomplete context through the loss of relevant signs, parts of signs, are a complete loss of the object of study
Pavlenko and Muller note that studies have idenitified three factors which effect the distribution of languages in a linguistic landscape
The owner of the sign: Government vs private
The placement of the sign within a city: Signs that are in tourist areas, or places of entry and exit around a city tend to have multiple languages
Difference between towns in a country: some are more or less multilingual and or are multilingual in differing ways
What can the material of a sign tell us in accordance with Pavlenko and Muller
The more permanent/valuable the material, the more the language it displays is valued
What are other signs of preference in language in signs?
Size of text
Placement of text: preference at top (Scollon and Scollon (2003) )and at eye height
Style of text
Aspirational use of language in a sign
Pavlenko and Muller
The language can be indicatory of the identity aspects/ values they wish to be associated/aspire to acquire
In accordance with Coulmas 2009, what are the most important questions in regards to the study of linguistic landscapes
Who is able to read this sign?
AND
Who reads it?
Every inscription conveys a
message about itself that refers to the language in which it is composed: There is someone out
there who reads language x
What does Coulmas 2009 mean when he says every piece of signage is ‘Polifunctional
All signs have a communicatory function and a symbolic function
Bottom-up vs Top-down signage
Bottom-up are privately owned signs which normally are more multilinguistic than top-down signage as it is more subject to asperational use of language or is made to appeal to a more global audience
Whereas Top-down signs are normally govermental and are thus normally more monolingual, being written in the countries dominant language
